How Computer Viruses Work
by Marshall Brain
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Please copy/paste the following text to properly cite this HowStuffWorks article:
Brain, Marshall. "How Computer Viruses Work." 01 April 2000. HowStuffWorks.com. 07 December 2009.
Inside this Article
Introduction to How Computer Viruses Work
Virus Origins
Virus History
Virus Evolution
E-mail Viruses
Worms
See more »
How to Protect Your Computer from Viruses
Lots More Information
See all Computer & Internet Security articles
What Not to Do With Spam E-mails
Sunday, December 13, 2009
Thursday, December 10, 2009
Kerajaan-kerajaan kuno
Kerajaan-kerajaan kuno
Kerajaan-kerajaan kuno di Asia Tenggara pada umumnya dapat dibagi menjadi dua kategori, yaitu kerajaan-kerajaan agraris dan kerajaan-kerajaan maritim.
Kegiatan utama kerajaan-kerajaan agraris adalah pertanian. Mereka kebanyakan terletak di semenanjung Asia Tenggara. Contoh kerajaan agraris adalah Kerajaan Ayutthaya, yang terletak di delta sungai Chao Phraya, dan Kerajaan Khmer yang berada di Tonle Sap. Kerajaan-kerajaan maritim kegiatan utamanya adalah perdagangan melalui laut. Kerajaan Malaka dan Kerajaan Sriwijaya adalah contoh dari kerajaan maritim.
Tidak banyak yang diketahui mengenai kepercayaan dan praktek keagamaan Asia Tenggara, sebelum kedatangan dan pengaruh agama dari para pedagang India pada abad ke-2 Masehi dan seterusnya. Sebelum abad ke-13, agama-agama Buddha dan Hindu adalah kepercayaan utama di Asia Tenggara. Kerajaan-kerajaan di daratan (semenanjung) Asia Tenggara pada umumnya memeluk agama Buddha, sedangkan kerajaan-kerajaan di kepulauan Melayu (Nusantara) umumnya lebih dipengaruhi agama Hindu. Beberapa kerajaan yang berkembang di semenanjung ini, awalnya bermula di daerah yang sekarang menjadi negara-negara Myanmar, Kamboja dan Vietnam.
Peninggalan ibukota Kerajaan Ayutthaya, ThailandKekuasaan dominan yang pertama kali muncul di kepulauan adalah Sriwijaya di Sumatra. Dari abad ke-5 Masehi, Palembang sebagai ibukota Sriwijaya menjadi pelabuhan besar dan berfungsi sebagai pelabuhan persinggahan (entrepot) pada Jalur Rempah-rempah (spice route) yang terjalin antara India dan Tiongkok. Sriwijaya juga merupakan pusat pengaruh dan pendidikan agama Buddha yang cukup berpengaruh. Kemajuan teknologi kelautan pada abad ke-10 Masehi membuat pengaruh dan kemakmuran Sriwijaya memudar. Kemajuan tersebut membuat para pedagang Tiongkok dan India untuk dapat secara langsung mengirimkan barang-barang diantara keduanya, serta membuat kerajaan Chola di India Selatan dapat melakukan serangkaian penyerangan penghancuran terhadap daerah-daerah kekuasaan Sriwijaya, yang mengakhiri fungsi Palembang sebagai pelabuhan persinggahan.
Pulau Jawa kerap kali didominasi oleh beberapa kerajaan agraris yang saling bersaing satu sama lain, termasuk diantaranya kerajaan-kerajaan wangsa Syailendra, Mataram Kuno dan akhirnya Majapahit.
Para pedagang Muslim mulai mengunjungi Asia Tenggara pada abad ke-12 Masehi. Samudera Pasai adalah kerajaan Islam yang pertama. Ketika itu, Sriwijaya telah diambang keruntuhan akibat perselisihan internal. Kesultanan Malaka, yang didirikan oleh salah seorang pangeran Sriwijaya, berkembang kekuasaannya dalam perlindungan Tiongkok dan mengambil alih peranan Sriwijaya sebelumnya. Agama Islam kemudian menyebar di seantero kepulauan selama abad ke-13 dan abad ke-14 menggantikan agama Hindu, dimana Malaka (yang para penguasanya telah beragama Islam) berfungsi sebagai pusat penyebarannya di wilayah ini.
Beberapa kesultanan lainnya, seperti kesultanan Brunei di Kalimantan dan kesultanan Sulu di Filipina secara relatif mengalami sedikit hubungan dengan kerajaan-kerajaan lainnya.
Kerajaan-kerajaan kuno di Asia Tenggara pada umumnya dapat dibagi menjadi dua kategori, yaitu kerajaan-kerajaan agraris dan kerajaan-kerajaan maritim.
Kegiatan utama kerajaan-kerajaan agraris adalah pertanian. Mereka kebanyakan terletak di semenanjung Asia Tenggara. Contoh kerajaan agraris adalah Kerajaan Ayutthaya, yang terletak di delta sungai Chao Phraya, dan Kerajaan Khmer yang berada di Tonle Sap. Kerajaan-kerajaan maritim kegiatan utamanya adalah perdagangan melalui laut. Kerajaan Malaka dan Kerajaan Sriwijaya adalah contoh dari kerajaan maritim.
Tidak banyak yang diketahui mengenai kepercayaan dan praktek keagamaan Asia Tenggara, sebelum kedatangan dan pengaruh agama dari para pedagang India pada abad ke-2 Masehi dan seterusnya. Sebelum abad ke-13, agama-agama Buddha dan Hindu adalah kepercayaan utama di Asia Tenggara. Kerajaan-kerajaan di daratan (semenanjung) Asia Tenggara pada umumnya memeluk agama Buddha, sedangkan kerajaan-kerajaan di kepulauan Melayu (Nusantara) umumnya lebih dipengaruhi agama Hindu. Beberapa kerajaan yang berkembang di semenanjung ini, awalnya bermula di daerah yang sekarang menjadi negara-negara Myanmar, Kamboja dan Vietnam.
Peninggalan ibukota Kerajaan Ayutthaya, ThailandKekuasaan dominan yang pertama kali muncul di kepulauan adalah Sriwijaya di Sumatra. Dari abad ke-5 Masehi, Palembang sebagai ibukota Sriwijaya menjadi pelabuhan besar dan berfungsi sebagai pelabuhan persinggahan (entrepot) pada Jalur Rempah-rempah (spice route) yang terjalin antara India dan Tiongkok. Sriwijaya juga merupakan pusat pengaruh dan pendidikan agama Buddha yang cukup berpengaruh. Kemajuan teknologi kelautan pada abad ke-10 Masehi membuat pengaruh dan kemakmuran Sriwijaya memudar. Kemajuan tersebut membuat para pedagang Tiongkok dan India untuk dapat secara langsung mengirimkan barang-barang diantara keduanya, serta membuat kerajaan Chola di India Selatan dapat melakukan serangkaian penyerangan penghancuran terhadap daerah-daerah kekuasaan Sriwijaya, yang mengakhiri fungsi Palembang sebagai pelabuhan persinggahan.
Pulau Jawa kerap kali didominasi oleh beberapa kerajaan agraris yang saling bersaing satu sama lain, termasuk diantaranya kerajaan-kerajaan wangsa Syailendra, Mataram Kuno dan akhirnya Majapahit.
Para pedagang Muslim mulai mengunjungi Asia Tenggara pada abad ke-12 Masehi. Samudera Pasai adalah kerajaan Islam yang pertama. Ketika itu, Sriwijaya telah diambang keruntuhan akibat perselisihan internal. Kesultanan Malaka, yang didirikan oleh salah seorang pangeran Sriwijaya, berkembang kekuasaannya dalam perlindungan Tiongkok dan mengambil alih peranan Sriwijaya sebelumnya. Agama Islam kemudian menyebar di seantero kepulauan selama abad ke-13 dan abad ke-14 menggantikan agama Hindu, dimana Malaka (yang para penguasanya telah beragama Islam) berfungsi sebagai pusat penyebarannya di wilayah ini.
Beberapa kesultanan lainnya, seperti kesultanan Brunei di Kalimantan dan kesultanan Sulu di Filipina secara relatif mengalami sedikit hubungan dengan kerajaan-kerajaan lainnya.
Wednesday, December 9, 2009
Museum Geologi Bandung
Museum Geologi Bandung
MASA PENJAJAHAN BELANDA
Keberadaan Museum Geologi berkaitan erat dengan sejarah penyelidikan geologi dan tambang di wilayah Nusantara yang dimulai sejak pertengahan abad ke-17 oleh para ahli dari Eropa. Setelah di Eropa terjadi revolusi industri pada pertengahan abad ke-18, mereka sangat membutuhkan bahan tambang sebagai bahan dasar industri. Pemerintah Belanda sadar akan pentingnya penguasaan bahan galian di wilayah Nusantara. Dengan jalan itu diharapkan perkembangan industri di Negeri Belanda dapat ditunjang. Maka dibentuklah Dienst van het Mijnwezen pada tahun 1850. Kelembagaan ini berganti nama jadi Dienst van den Mijnbouw pada tahun 1922, yang bertugas melakukan penyelidikan geologi dan sumberdaya mineral. Hasil penyelidikan yang berupa contoh-contoh batuan, mineral, fosil, laporan dan peta memerlukan tempat untuk penganalisaan dan penyimpanan, sehingga pada tahun 1928 Dienst van den Mijnbouw membangun gedung di Rembrandt Straat Bandung. Gedung tersebut pada awalnya bernama Geologisch Laboratorium yang kemudian juga disebut Geologisch Museum. Gedung Geologisch Laboratorium dirancang dengan gaya Art Deco oleh arsitek Ir. Menalda van Schouwenburg, dan dibangun selama 11 bulan dengan 300 pekerja dan menghabiskan dana 400 Gulden, mulai pertengahan tahun 1928 sampai diresmikannya pada tanggal 16 Mei 1929. Peresmian tersebut bertepatan dengan penyelenggaraan Kongres Ilmu Pengetahuan Pasifik ke-4 (Fourth Pacific Science Congress) di Bandung pada tanggal 18-24 Mei 1929.
Museum Geologi pada tahun 1929 Peserta Kongres
MASA PENJAJAHAN BELANDA
Keberadaan Museum Geologi berkaitan erat dengan sejarah penyelidikan geologi dan tambang di wilayah Nusantara yang dimulai sejak pertengahan abad ke-17 oleh para ahli dari Eropa. Setelah di Eropa terjadi revolusi industri pada pertengahan abad ke-18, mereka sangat membutuhkan bahan tambang sebagai bahan dasar industri. Pemerintah Belanda sadar akan pentingnya penguasaan bahan galian di wilayah Nusantara. Dengan jalan itu diharapkan perkembangan industri di Negeri Belanda dapat ditunjang. Maka dibentuklah Dienst van het Mijnwezen pada tahun 1850. Kelembagaan ini berganti nama jadi Dienst van den Mijnbouw pada tahun 1922, yang bertugas melakukan penyelidikan geologi dan sumberdaya mineral. Hasil penyelidikan yang berupa contoh-contoh batuan, mineral, fosil, laporan dan peta memerlukan tempat untuk penganalisaan dan penyimpanan, sehingga pada tahun 1928 Dienst van den Mijnbouw membangun gedung di Rembrandt Straat Bandung. Gedung tersebut pada awalnya bernama Geologisch Laboratorium yang kemudian juga disebut Geologisch Museum. Gedung Geologisch Laboratorium dirancang dengan gaya Art Deco oleh arsitek Ir. Menalda van Schouwenburg, dan dibangun selama 11 bulan dengan 300 pekerja dan menghabiskan dana 400 Gulden, mulai pertengahan tahun 1928 sampai diresmikannya pada tanggal 16 Mei 1929. Peresmian tersebut bertepatan dengan penyelenggaraan Kongres Ilmu Pengetahuan Pasifik ke-4 (Fourth Pacific Science Congress) di Bandung pada tanggal 18-24 Mei 1929.
Museum Geologi pada tahun 1929 Peserta Kongres
Timun Emas
Timun Emas
Pada zaman dahulu, hiduplah sepasang suami istri petani. Mereka tinggal di sebuah desa di dekat hutan. Mereka hidup bahagia. Sayangnya mereka belum saja dikaruniai seorang anak pun.
Setiap hari mereka berdoa pada Yang Maha Kuasa. Mereka berdoa agar segera diberi seorang anak. Suatu hari seorang raksasa melewati tempat tinggal mereka. Raksasa itu mendengar doa suami istri itu. Raksasa itu kemudian memberi mereka biji mentimun.
“Tanamlah biji ini. Nanti kau akan mendapatkan seorang anak perempuan,” kata Raksasa. “Terima kasih, Raksasa,” kata suami istri itu. “Tapi ada syaratnya. Pada usia 17 tahun anak itu harus kalian serahkan padaku,” sahut Raksasa. Suami istri itu sangat merindukan seorang anak. Karena itu tanpa berpikir panjang mereka setuju.
Suami istri petani itu kemudian menanam biji-biji mentimun itu. Setiap hari mereka merawat tanaman yang mulai tumbuh itu dengan sebaik mungkin. Berbulan-bulan kemudian tumbuhlah sebuah mentimun berwarna keemasan.
Buah mentimun itu semakin lama semakin besar dan berat. Ketika buah itu masak, mereka memetiknya. Dengan hati-hati mereka memotong buah itu. Betapa terkejutnya mereka, di dalam buah itu mereka menemukan bayi perempuan yang sangat cantik. Suami istri itu sangat bahagia. Mereka memberi nama bayi itu Timun Mas.
Tahun demi tahun berlalu. Timun Mas tumbuh menjadi gadis yang cantik. Kedua orang tuanya sangat bangga padanya. Tapi mereka menjadi sangat takut. Karena pada ulang tahun Timun Mas yang ke-17, sang raksasa datang kembali. Raksasa itu menangih janji untuk mengambil Timun Mas.
Petani itu mencoba tenang. “Tunggulah sebentar. Timun Mas sedang bermain. Istriku akan memanggilnya,” katanya. Petani itu segera menemui anaknya. “Anakkku, ambillah ini,” katanya sambil menyerahkan sebuah kantung kain. “Ini akan menolongmu melawan Raksasa. Sekarang larilah secepat mungkin,” katanya. Maka Timun Mas pun segera melarikan diri.
Suami istri itu sedih atas kepergian Timun Mas. Tapi mereka tidak rela kalau anaknya menjadi santapan Raksasa. Raksasa menunggu cukup lama. Ia menjadi tak sabar. Ia tahu, telah dibohongi suami istri itu. Lalu ia pun menghancurkan pondok petani itu. Lalu ia mengejar Timun Mas ke hutan.
Raksasa segera berlari mengejar Timun Mas. Raksasa semakin dekat. Timun Mas segera mengambil segenggam garam dari kantung kainnya. Lalu garam itu ditaburkan ke arah Raksasa. Tiba-tiba sebuah laut yang luas pun terhampar. Raksasa terpaksa berenang dengan susah payah.
Timun Mas berlari lagi. Tapi kemudian Raksasa hampir berhasil menyusulnya. Timun Mas kembali mengambil benda ajaib dari kantungnya. Ia mengambil segenggam cabai. Cabai itu dilemparnya ke arah raksasa. Seketika pohon dengan ranting dan duri yang tajam memerangkap Raksasa. Raksasa berteriak kesakitan. Sementara Timun Mas berlari menyelamatkan diri.
Tapi Raksasa sungguh kuat. Ia lagi-lagi hampir menangkap Timun Mas. Maka Timun Mas pun mengeluarkan benda ajaib ketiga. Ia menebarkan biji-biji mentimun ajaib. Seketika tumbuhlah kebun mentimun yang sangat luas. Raksasa sangat letih dan kelaparan. Ia pun makan mentimun-mentimun yang segar itu dengan lahap. Karena terlalu banyak makan, Raksasa tertidur.
Timun Mas kembali melarikan diri. Ia berlari sekuat tenaga. Tapi lama kelamaan tenaganya habis. Lebih celaka lagi karena Raksasa terbangun dari tidurnya. Raksasa lagi-lagi hampir menangkapnya. Timun Mas sangat ketakutan. Ia pun melemparkan senjatanya yang terakhir, segenggam terasi udang. Lagi-lagi terjadi keajaiban. Sebuah danau lumpur yang luas terhampar. Raksasa terjerembab ke dalamnya. Tangannya hampir menggapai Timun Mas. Tapi danau lumpur itu menariknya ke dasar. Raksasa panik. Ia tak bisa bernapas, lalu tenggelam.
Timun Mas lega. Ia telah selamat. Timun Mas pun kembali ke rumah orang tuanya. Ayah dan Ibu Timun Mas senang sekali melihat Timun Mas selamat. Mereka menyambutnya. “Terima Kasih, Tuhan. Kau telah menyelamatkan anakku,” kata mereka gembira.
Sejak saat itu Timun Mas dapat hidup tenang bersama orang tuanya. Mereka dapat hidup bahagia tanpa ketakutan lagi.
Pada zaman dahulu, hiduplah sepasang suami istri petani. Mereka tinggal di sebuah desa di dekat hutan. Mereka hidup bahagia. Sayangnya mereka belum saja dikaruniai seorang anak pun.
Setiap hari mereka berdoa pada Yang Maha Kuasa. Mereka berdoa agar segera diberi seorang anak. Suatu hari seorang raksasa melewati tempat tinggal mereka. Raksasa itu mendengar doa suami istri itu. Raksasa itu kemudian memberi mereka biji mentimun.
“Tanamlah biji ini. Nanti kau akan mendapatkan seorang anak perempuan,” kata Raksasa. “Terima kasih, Raksasa,” kata suami istri itu. “Tapi ada syaratnya. Pada usia 17 tahun anak itu harus kalian serahkan padaku,” sahut Raksasa. Suami istri itu sangat merindukan seorang anak. Karena itu tanpa berpikir panjang mereka setuju.
Suami istri petani itu kemudian menanam biji-biji mentimun itu. Setiap hari mereka merawat tanaman yang mulai tumbuh itu dengan sebaik mungkin. Berbulan-bulan kemudian tumbuhlah sebuah mentimun berwarna keemasan.
Buah mentimun itu semakin lama semakin besar dan berat. Ketika buah itu masak, mereka memetiknya. Dengan hati-hati mereka memotong buah itu. Betapa terkejutnya mereka, di dalam buah itu mereka menemukan bayi perempuan yang sangat cantik. Suami istri itu sangat bahagia. Mereka memberi nama bayi itu Timun Mas.
Tahun demi tahun berlalu. Timun Mas tumbuh menjadi gadis yang cantik. Kedua orang tuanya sangat bangga padanya. Tapi mereka menjadi sangat takut. Karena pada ulang tahun Timun Mas yang ke-17, sang raksasa datang kembali. Raksasa itu menangih janji untuk mengambil Timun Mas.
Petani itu mencoba tenang. “Tunggulah sebentar. Timun Mas sedang bermain. Istriku akan memanggilnya,” katanya. Petani itu segera menemui anaknya. “Anakkku, ambillah ini,” katanya sambil menyerahkan sebuah kantung kain. “Ini akan menolongmu melawan Raksasa. Sekarang larilah secepat mungkin,” katanya. Maka Timun Mas pun segera melarikan diri.
Suami istri itu sedih atas kepergian Timun Mas. Tapi mereka tidak rela kalau anaknya menjadi santapan Raksasa. Raksasa menunggu cukup lama. Ia menjadi tak sabar. Ia tahu, telah dibohongi suami istri itu. Lalu ia pun menghancurkan pondok petani itu. Lalu ia mengejar Timun Mas ke hutan.
Raksasa segera berlari mengejar Timun Mas. Raksasa semakin dekat. Timun Mas segera mengambil segenggam garam dari kantung kainnya. Lalu garam itu ditaburkan ke arah Raksasa. Tiba-tiba sebuah laut yang luas pun terhampar. Raksasa terpaksa berenang dengan susah payah.
Timun Mas berlari lagi. Tapi kemudian Raksasa hampir berhasil menyusulnya. Timun Mas kembali mengambil benda ajaib dari kantungnya. Ia mengambil segenggam cabai. Cabai itu dilemparnya ke arah raksasa. Seketika pohon dengan ranting dan duri yang tajam memerangkap Raksasa. Raksasa berteriak kesakitan. Sementara Timun Mas berlari menyelamatkan diri.
Tapi Raksasa sungguh kuat. Ia lagi-lagi hampir menangkap Timun Mas. Maka Timun Mas pun mengeluarkan benda ajaib ketiga. Ia menebarkan biji-biji mentimun ajaib. Seketika tumbuhlah kebun mentimun yang sangat luas. Raksasa sangat letih dan kelaparan. Ia pun makan mentimun-mentimun yang segar itu dengan lahap. Karena terlalu banyak makan, Raksasa tertidur.
Timun Mas kembali melarikan diri. Ia berlari sekuat tenaga. Tapi lama kelamaan tenaganya habis. Lebih celaka lagi karena Raksasa terbangun dari tidurnya. Raksasa lagi-lagi hampir menangkapnya. Timun Mas sangat ketakutan. Ia pun melemparkan senjatanya yang terakhir, segenggam terasi udang. Lagi-lagi terjadi keajaiban. Sebuah danau lumpur yang luas terhampar. Raksasa terjerembab ke dalamnya. Tangannya hampir menggapai Timun Mas. Tapi danau lumpur itu menariknya ke dasar. Raksasa panik. Ia tak bisa bernapas, lalu tenggelam.
Timun Mas lega. Ia telah selamat. Timun Mas pun kembali ke rumah orang tuanya. Ayah dan Ibu Timun Mas senang sekali melihat Timun Mas selamat. Mereka menyambutnya. “Terima Kasih, Tuhan. Kau telah menyelamatkan anakku,” kata mereka gembira.
Sejak saat itu Timun Mas dapat hidup tenang bersama orang tuanya. Mereka dapat hidup bahagia tanpa ketakutan lagi.
Recount
Recount
Recount adalah menceritakan kembali suatu peristiwa di masa lalu dalam bentuk paragraf. Biasanya, paragraf dibagi menjadi 3 bagian yaitu:
Orientation berisi tentang what (apa), when (kapan), where (dimana), who (siapa), dll.
Event menceritakan urutan peristiwa yang terjadi.
Reorientation bagian penutup cerita dan bisa ada kesimpulan. Recount adalah menceritakan kembali suatu peristiwa di masa lalu dalam bentuk paragraf. Biasanya, paragraf dibagi menjadi 3 bagian yaitu:
Orientation berisi tentang what (apa), when (kapan), where (dimana), who (siapa), dll.
Event menceritakan urutan peristiwa yang terjadi.
Reorientation bagian penutup cerita dan bisa ada kesimpulan.
Recount adalah menceritakan kembali suatu peristiwa di masa lalu dalam bentuk paragraf. Biasanya, paragraf dibagi menjadi 3 bagian yaitu:
Orientation berisi tentang what (apa), when (kapan), where (dimana), who (siapa), dll.
Event menceritakan urutan peristiwa yang terjadi.
Reorientation bagian penutup cerita dan bisa ada kesimpulan. Recount adalah menceritakan kembali suatu peristiwa di masa lalu dalam bentuk paragraf. Biasanya, paragraf dibagi menjadi 3 bagian yaitu:
Orientation berisi tentang what (apa), when (kapan), where (dimana), who (siapa), dll.
Event menceritakan urutan peristiwa yang terjadi.
Reorientation bagian penutup cerita dan bisa ada kesimpulan.
Narrative Text
Narrative Text
Long ago, before automobiles had been invented people came to town to shop or go to the bank or post office in buggies or wagons drawn by horses. The horses had to be tied to a hitching post so that they didn't wander around while their owner shopped. A long hitching post and rail was built along side the street next to the long side of the store building. The buggies and horses were safer there than if they were tied out in front on the main street which was then U. S. 50.
One winter there came a deep snow, maybe as much as 8 or 9 inches. The snow piled up high on the steep roof of all the buildings in town, including the tall store. People needed to shop or go to the bank but horses could come through snow even that deep. Several wagons parked alongside the hitching post and the horses were tied to the rail waiting there for their owners to return. It had turned quite warm, the sun had come out. Heat from inside the store and the sun on the outside heated up the slates on the roof and melted the underside of the snow. Then, all of a sudden, all the roof snow slid off the slates, just like an avalanche, and dropped down right on top of the horses tied to the hitching rail. Snow can be very heavy and there was lots of snow on that roof. It was a terrible accident. All of the horses were frightened. They tried to break free. Two of the horses were killed, several of them were knocked down and some had legs broken. The buggies were badly crushed. People came running to help free the horses and treat them if they could. The accident story was soon in the newspaper. People quickly learned not to ever tie their horses to the hitching rail next to the tall building if it had snowed and it was still on the store roof.
Dahulu kala, sebelum mobil itu telah ditemukan, orang datang ke kota untuk berbelanja atau pergi ke bank atau kantor pos di kereta atau kereta yang ditarik oleh kuda. Kuda-kuda itu harus diikat ke posting hitching sehingga mereka tidak berkeliaran di saat pemiliknya berbelanja. Hitching panjang pos dan kereta api ini dibangun di sepanjang sisi jalan sebelah sisi panjang bangunan toko. Kereta dan kuda-kuda yang lebih aman di sana daripada jika mereka diikat di depan di jalan utama yang kemudian US 50.
Satu musim dingin datang salju yang mendalam, mungkin sebanyak 8 atau 9 inci. Salju menumpuk tinggi di atap curam semua bangunan di kota, termasuk toko yang tinggi. Orang-orang yang diperlukan untuk berbelanja atau pergi ke bank tetapi kuda bisa datang melalui bahkan salju yang dalam. Beberapa gerobak yang diparkir di samping pos dan hitching kuda-kuda itu diikat ke pagar menunggu di sana untuk pemilik mereka kembali. Itu telah berubah cukup hangat, matahari telah keluar. Panas dari dalam toko dan matahari di luar memanaskan papan tulis di atap dan melelehkan bawah salju. Kemudian, tiba-tiba, semua atap salju turun dari papan tulis, seperti tanah longsor, dan jatuh tepat di atas kuda-kuda itu diikat ke hitching rel. Salju dapat menjadi sangat berat dan ada banyak salju di atap itu. Itu adalah kecelakaan yang mengerikan. Semua kuda-kuda ketakutan. Mereka mencoba membebaskan diri. Dua dari kuda-kuda itu tewas, beberapa dari mereka mengetuk turun dan beberapa punya kaki patah. Parah pada kereta hancur. Orang-orang datang berlari untuk membantu membebaskan kuda dan memperlakukan mereka jika mereka bisa. Cerita kecelakaan segera di surat kabar. Orang dengan cepat belajar untuk tidak pernah mengikat kuda-kuda mereka ke rel hitching di sebelah gedung tinggi jika salju turun dan masih berada di atap toko.
Long ago, before automobiles had been invented people came to town to shop or go to the bank or post office in buggies or wagons drawn by horses. The horses had to be tied to a hitching post so that they didn't wander around while their owner shopped. A long hitching post and rail was built along side the street next to the long side of the store building. The buggies and horses were safer there than if they were tied out in front on the main street which was then U. S. 50.
One winter there came a deep snow, maybe as much as 8 or 9 inches. The snow piled up high on the steep roof of all the buildings in town, including the tall store. People needed to shop or go to the bank but horses could come through snow even that deep. Several wagons parked alongside the hitching post and the horses were tied to the rail waiting there for their owners to return. It had turned quite warm, the sun had come out. Heat from inside the store and the sun on the outside heated up the slates on the roof and melted the underside of the snow. Then, all of a sudden, all the roof snow slid off the slates, just like an avalanche, and dropped down right on top of the horses tied to the hitching rail. Snow can be very heavy and there was lots of snow on that roof. It was a terrible accident. All of the horses were frightened. They tried to break free. Two of the horses were killed, several of them were knocked down and some had legs broken. The buggies were badly crushed. People came running to help free the horses and treat them if they could. The accident story was soon in the newspaper. People quickly learned not to ever tie their horses to the hitching rail next to the tall building if it had snowed and it was still on the store roof.
Dahulu kala, sebelum mobil itu telah ditemukan, orang datang ke kota untuk berbelanja atau pergi ke bank atau kantor pos di kereta atau kereta yang ditarik oleh kuda. Kuda-kuda itu harus diikat ke posting hitching sehingga mereka tidak berkeliaran di saat pemiliknya berbelanja. Hitching panjang pos dan kereta api ini dibangun di sepanjang sisi jalan sebelah sisi panjang bangunan toko. Kereta dan kuda-kuda yang lebih aman di sana daripada jika mereka diikat di depan di jalan utama yang kemudian US 50.
Satu musim dingin datang salju yang mendalam, mungkin sebanyak 8 atau 9 inci. Salju menumpuk tinggi di atap curam semua bangunan di kota, termasuk toko yang tinggi. Orang-orang yang diperlukan untuk berbelanja atau pergi ke bank tetapi kuda bisa datang melalui bahkan salju yang dalam. Beberapa gerobak yang diparkir di samping pos dan hitching kuda-kuda itu diikat ke pagar menunggu di sana untuk pemilik mereka kembali. Itu telah berubah cukup hangat, matahari telah keluar. Panas dari dalam toko dan matahari di luar memanaskan papan tulis di atap dan melelehkan bawah salju. Kemudian, tiba-tiba, semua atap salju turun dari papan tulis, seperti tanah longsor, dan jatuh tepat di atas kuda-kuda itu diikat ke hitching rel. Salju dapat menjadi sangat berat dan ada banyak salju di atap itu. Itu adalah kecelakaan yang mengerikan. Semua kuda-kuda ketakutan. Mereka mencoba membebaskan diri. Dua dari kuda-kuda itu tewas, beberapa dari mereka mengetuk turun dan beberapa punya kaki patah. Parah pada kereta hancur. Orang-orang datang berlari untuk membantu membebaskan kuda dan memperlakukan mereka jika mereka bisa. Cerita kecelakaan segera di surat kabar. Orang dengan cepat belajar untuk tidak pernah mengikat kuda-kuda mereka ke rel hitching di sebelah gedung tinggi jika salju turun dan masih berada di atap toko.
Biografi Barack Obama
Biografi Barack Obama
Biografi Singkat Barack Obama : Presiden Amerika Serikat ke-44
Proses pemilihan presiden di Amerika adalah sebuah drama politik yang melelahkan, lahir dari sejarah 200-an tahun, dan menjadi “buku panduan” bagi pemilihan presiden negara-negara lainnya. Dan hasilnya, mau tak mau diakui, akan berpengaruh bagi hidup banyak warga bangsa lainnya (antara lain: perang, terorisme, krisis finansial & teknologi yang berasal dari AS ). Namun ada yang membedakan proses tahun ini dibandingkan periode-periode sebelumnya. Tahun ini, pemilihan presiden Amerika Serikat menjadi semakin populer dan ikut diperhatikan oleh banyak orang dari berbagai golongan dan kelas: dari warga anak kecil di Kenya sampai tante-tante di Tegal, dari Hawai sampai Munich . Pemicunya adalah kandidat bernama Barack Obama. Obama bagi banyak golongan adalah simbol sekaligus cermin dan juga fenomena.
Obama adalah manusia abu-abu, lahir dan besar dalam persimpangan budaya yang membuatnya kesulitan mencari jatidiri di awal masa hidupnya. Anak dari seorang Kenya berkulit hitam legam dan ibu Amerika berkulit seputih susu, dibesarkan secara sederhana dalam budaya kulit putih namun memilih untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya sebagai seorang laki-laki kulit hitam. Sejak kecil hanya bermimpi menjadi pemain basket profesional di NBA, dan berlabuh menjadi politisi papan atas. Sebuah biografi yang tak lazim bagi seorang kandidat presiden Amerika (dimana kecurigaan dan luka akibat politik diskriminasi warna kulit dimasa lalu belum hilang sama sekali), sekaligus biografi yang menginspirasi banyak orang.
Keabu-abuan ini sempat menjadikan Obama sebagai sasaran tembak lawan politiknya, dari tuduhan Obama adalah muslim, Obama tidak lahir di tanah Amerika sampai Obama adalah sosialis. Namun kejelian Obama dalam memanfaatkan biografi dirinya sebagai bukti kehebatan demokrasi di AS (Obama sering mengungkapkan: “apa yang bisa saya capai hanya bisa terjadi di negara ini, tidak di manapun”), kemampuannya memahami keinginan publik serta memformulasikan mantra perubahan dalam cara berpolitik membuatnya bisa mengarungi kerasnya jagat politik di AS. Muncul sebagai kandidat terpilih dari Partai Demokrat dengan terlebih dahulu merontokkan mesin politik kelas kakap milik dinasti Clinton, setelah pertarungan panjang dan melelahkan selama 8 bulan.
Kampanye melawan kandidat Partai Republik, John McCain, jelas bukan hal yang mudah baginya. McCain adalah figur pahlawan AS, seorang veteran perang dari keturunan pembesar Angkatan laut AS (ayah dan kakek McCain adalah admiral), pernah mendekam dipenjara Vietkong dan menerima siksaan komunis Vietnam selama lima tahun. Obama yang relatif jauh lebih muda (47 tahun, Mc Cain 72 tahun) dan minim pengalaman politik (McCain telah menjadi anggota konggres AS sejak 26 tahun lalu). Namun sekali lagi Barack Obama berhasil melalui tantangan didepannya.
Biografi Singkat Barack Obama : Presiden Amerika Serikat ke-44
Proses pemilihan presiden di Amerika adalah sebuah drama politik yang melelahkan, lahir dari sejarah 200-an tahun, dan menjadi “buku panduan” bagi pemilihan presiden negara-negara lainnya. Dan hasilnya, mau tak mau diakui, akan berpengaruh bagi hidup banyak warga bangsa lainnya (antara lain: perang, terorisme, krisis finansial & teknologi yang berasal dari AS ). Namun ada yang membedakan proses tahun ini dibandingkan periode-periode sebelumnya. Tahun ini, pemilihan presiden Amerika Serikat menjadi semakin populer dan ikut diperhatikan oleh banyak orang dari berbagai golongan dan kelas: dari warga anak kecil di Kenya sampai tante-tante di Tegal, dari Hawai sampai Munich . Pemicunya adalah kandidat bernama Barack Obama. Obama bagi banyak golongan adalah simbol sekaligus cermin dan juga fenomena.
Obama adalah manusia abu-abu, lahir dan besar dalam persimpangan budaya yang membuatnya kesulitan mencari jatidiri di awal masa hidupnya. Anak dari seorang Kenya berkulit hitam legam dan ibu Amerika berkulit seputih susu, dibesarkan secara sederhana dalam budaya kulit putih namun memilih untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya sebagai seorang laki-laki kulit hitam. Sejak kecil hanya bermimpi menjadi pemain basket profesional di NBA, dan berlabuh menjadi politisi papan atas. Sebuah biografi yang tak lazim bagi seorang kandidat presiden Amerika (dimana kecurigaan dan luka akibat politik diskriminasi warna kulit dimasa lalu belum hilang sama sekali), sekaligus biografi yang menginspirasi banyak orang.
Keabu-abuan ini sempat menjadikan Obama sebagai sasaran tembak lawan politiknya, dari tuduhan Obama adalah muslim, Obama tidak lahir di tanah Amerika sampai Obama adalah sosialis. Namun kejelian Obama dalam memanfaatkan biografi dirinya sebagai bukti kehebatan demokrasi di AS (Obama sering mengungkapkan: “apa yang bisa saya capai hanya bisa terjadi di negara ini, tidak di manapun”), kemampuannya memahami keinginan publik serta memformulasikan mantra perubahan dalam cara berpolitik membuatnya bisa mengarungi kerasnya jagat politik di AS. Muncul sebagai kandidat terpilih dari Partai Demokrat dengan terlebih dahulu merontokkan mesin politik kelas kakap milik dinasti Clinton, setelah pertarungan panjang dan melelahkan selama 8 bulan.
Kampanye melawan kandidat Partai Republik, John McCain, jelas bukan hal yang mudah baginya. McCain adalah figur pahlawan AS, seorang veteran perang dari keturunan pembesar Angkatan laut AS (ayah dan kakek McCain adalah admiral), pernah mendekam dipenjara Vietkong dan menerima siksaan komunis Vietnam selama lima tahun. Obama yang relatif jauh lebih muda (47 tahun, Mc Cain 72 tahun) dan minim pengalaman politik (McCain telah menjadi anggota konggres AS sejak 26 tahun lalu). Namun sekali lagi Barack Obama berhasil melalui tantangan didepannya.
Pangkalan U.F.O.
[sunting] Pangkalan U.F.O.
Pemerintah dan Akademis Independen A.S. mengatakan Segitiga Bermuda disebabkan karena tempat tersebut merupakan Pangkalan UFO sekelompok mahkluk luar angkasa/alien yang tidak mau diusik oleh manusia, sehingga kendaraan apapun yang melewati teritorial tersebut akan terhisap dan diculik. Ada yang mengatakan bahwa penyebabnya dikarenakan oleh adanya sumber magnet terbesar di bumi yang tertanam di bawah Segitiga Bermuda, sehingga logam berton-tonpun dapat tertarik ke dalam.
Pemerintah dan Akademis Independen A.S. mengatakan Segitiga Bermuda disebabkan karena tempat tersebut merupakan Pangkalan UFO sekelompok mahkluk luar angkasa/alien yang tidak mau diusik oleh manusia, sehingga kendaraan apapun yang melewati teritorial tersebut akan terhisap dan diculik. Ada yang mengatakan bahwa penyebabnya dikarenakan oleh adanya sumber magnet terbesar di bumi yang tertanam di bawah Segitiga Bermuda, sehingga logam berton-tonpun dapat tertarik ke dalam.
Sejarah awal
Sejarah awal
Pada masa pelayaran Christopher Colombus, ketika melintasi area segitiga Bermuda, salah satu awak kapalnya mengatakan melihat “cahaya aneh berkemilau di cakrawala”. Beberapa orang mengatakan telah mengamati sesuatu seperti meteor. Dalam catatannya ia menulis bahwa peralatan navigasi tidak berfungsi dengan baik selama berada di area tersebut.
Berbagai peristiwa kehilangan di area tersebut pertama kali didokumentasikan pada tahun 1951 oleh E.V.W. Jones dari majalah Associated Press. Jones menulis artikel mengenai peristiwa kehilangan misterius yang menimpa kapal terbang dan laut di area tersebut dan menyebutnya ‘Segitiga Setan’. Hal tersebut diungkit kembali pada tahun berikutnya oleh Fate Magazine dengan artikel yang dibuat George X. Tahun 1964, Vincent Geddis menyebut area tersebut sebagai ‘Segitiga Bermuda yang mematikan’, setelah istilah ‘Segitiga Bermuda’ menjadi istilah yang biasa disebut.
Pada masa pelayaran Christopher Colombus, ketika melintasi area segitiga Bermuda, salah satu awak kapalnya mengatakan melihat “cahaya aneh berkemilau di cakrawala”. Beberapa orang mengatakan telah mengamati sesuatu seperti meteor. Dalam catatannya ia menulis bahwa peralatan navigasi tidak berfungsi dengan baik selama berada di area tersebut.
Berbagai peristiwa kehilangan di area tersebut pertama kali didokumentasikan pada tahun 1951 oleh E.V.W. Jones dari majalah Associated Press. Jones menulis artikel mengenai peristiwa kehilangan misterius yang menimpa kapal terbang dan laut di area tersebut dan menyebutnya ‘Segitiga Setan’. Hal tersebut diungkit kembali pada tahun berikutnya oleh Fate Magazine dengan artikel yang dibuat George X. Tahun 1964, Vincent Geddis menyebut area tersebut sebagai ‘Segitiga Bermuda yang mematikan’, setelah istilah ‘Segitiga Bermuda’ menjadi istilah yang biasa disebut.
Tuesday, December 8, 2009
Muslim history
Muslim history
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from History of Islam)
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For the history of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For Islamic civilization, see Islamic civilization. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests. For chronology, see Timeline of Islamic history.
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Allah · Oneness of God
Muhammad · Other prophets
Practices
Profession of faith · Prayer
Fasting · Charity · Pilgrimage
Texts and laws
Qur'an · Sunnah · Hadith
Fiqh · Sharia · Kalam · Sufism
History and leadership
Timeline · Spread of Islam
Ahl al-Bayt · Sahaba
Sunni · Shi'a
Rashidun · Caliphate
Imamate
Culture and society
Academics · Animals · Art
Calendar · Children
Demographics · Festivals
Mosques · Philosophy
Science · Women
Politics · Dawah
Islam and other religions
Christianity · Judaism
Hinduism · Sikhism · Jainism
See also
Criticism · Islamophobia
Glossary of Islamic terms
Islam portal
v • d • e
Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. According to Islamic Faith and the Holy Text, it is wrong to say that the history of Islam began in Arabia with Muslim Prophet Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century, but with Adam and Eve. They are considered the First Apostles of God. Later, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, all taught the same faith as prophets, albeit in different regions or at different points of time.
Like most world religions, the historical evolution of Islam had a significant impact on the political, economic, and military and beyond its primary geographic areas. Islam's historical development has affected both inside and outside the Islamic world. The concept of the Islamic world is useful in observing the different periods of Islamic history; similarly useful is an understanding of the identification with a quasi-political community of believers, or ummah, on the part of Islam's practitioners down the centuries. Islamic culture encourages identification with a quasi-political community of believers or the ummah, and this principle has influenced the behavior of a number of players in history. The history of Islam is closely tied to the political, economic, and military.
A century after the death of Muhammad, an Islamic empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. The subsequent empires of the Umayyads, Abbasids, the Fatimids, the Mughals, the Safavids, and Ottomans were among the largest and most powerful in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and especially, the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
Later, in the eighteenth century and nineteenth century, many Islamic regions fell under the tutelage of European imperial powers. After the First World War, the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parcelled out as European protectorates. Since 1924, there has been no major widely-accepted claim to the caliphate (which had been last claimed by the Ottomans).
Although affected by various ideologies such as communism, during much of the twentieth century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early twenty-first century. The fast-growing Western interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world of the twenty-first century.[1]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from History of Islam)
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For the history of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For Islamic civilization, see Islamic civilization. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests. For chronology, see Timeline of Islamic history.
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Allah · Oneness of God
Muhammad · Other prophets
Practices
Profession of faith · Prayer
Fasting · Charity · Pilgrimage
Texts and laws
Qur'an · Sunnah · Hadith
Fiqh · Sharia · Kalam · Sufism
History and leadership
Timeline · Spread of Islam
Ahl al-Bayt · Sahaba
Sunni · Shi'a
Rashidun · Caliphate
Imamate
Culture and society
Academics · Animals · Art
Calendar · Children
Demographics · Festivals
Mosques · Philosophy
Science · Women
Politics · Dawah
Islam and other religions
Christianity · Judaism
Hinduism · Sikhism · Jainism
See also
Criticism · Islamophobia
Glossary of Islamic terms
Islam portal
v • d • e
Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. According to Islamic Faith and the Holy Text, it is wrong to say that the history of Islam began in Arabia with Muslim Prophet Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century, but with Adam and Eve. They are considered the First Apostles of God. Later, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, all taught the same faith as prophets, albeit in different regions or at different points of time.
Like most world religions, the historical evolution of Islam had a significant impact on the political, economic, and military and beyond its primary geographic areas. Islam's historical development has affected both inside and outside the Islamic world. The concept of the Islamic world is useful in observing the different periods of Islamic history; similarly useful is an understanding of the identification with a quasi-political community of believers, or ummah, on the part of Islam's practitioners down the centuries. Islamic culture encourages identification with a quasi-political community of believers or the ummah, and this principle has influenced the behavior of a number of players in history. The history of Islam is closely tied to the political, economic, and military.
A century after the death of Muhammad, an Islamic empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. The subsequent empires of the Umayyads, Abbasids, the Fatimids, the Mughals, the Safavids, and Ottomans were among the largest and most powerful in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and especially, the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
Later, in the eighteenth century and nineteenth century, many Islamic regions fell under the tutelage of European imperial powers. After the First World War, the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parcelled out as European protectorates. Since 1924, there has been no major widely-accepted claim to the caliphate (which had been last claimed by the Ottomans).
Although affected by various ideologies such as communism, during much of the twentieth century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early twenty-first century. The fast-growing Western interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world of the twenty-first century.[1]
Forcing out SuhartoPro-democracy movement
[edit] Forcing out Suharto
See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998
[edit] Pro-democracy movement
In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on June 20 - 22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.[37]
On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.[38]
See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998
[edit] Pro-democracy movement
In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on June 20 - 22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.[37]
On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.[38]
Forcing out Suharto
[edit] Forcing out Suharto
See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998
[edit] Pro-democracy movement
In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on June 20 - 22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.[37]
On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.[38]
See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998
[edit] Pro-democracy movement
In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on June 20 - 22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.[37]
On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.[38]
Saturday, December 5, 2009
Impact of Social and Political
Impact of Social and Political
Changes in weather and ocean can lead to the emergence of diseases associated with heat (heat stroke) and death. Hot temperatures can also cause crop failures that will appear hunger and malnutrition. Changes in extreme weather and increased sea levels due to melting Arctic ice could lead to diseases associated with natural disasters (floods, hurricanes and fires) and deaths due to trauma. The emergence of natural disasters is usually accompanied by the displacement of people into refugee camps places where the disease often occur, such as: diarrhea, malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, psychological trauma, skin diseases, and others.
Shift in the ecosystem can impact on the spread of diseases through water (Waterborne diseases) and the spread of diseases through vectors (vector-borne diseases). Such as increased incidence of Dengue Fever since the emergence of the (ecosystem) of this new breed mosquitoes. With this adamya climate change there is a species of disease vectors (Aedes Agipty eq), viruses, bacteria, plasmodium become more resistant to certain drugs that target these organisms adala it. Also predictable that there are some species that are naturally selected perbuhan or extinct due to this extreme ecosystem. this will also affect climate change (Climat change) the bus to the increase in cases affecting certain diseases such as ARI (drought / forest fires, DHF association with erratic rainy season)
Gradient Environmental pollution caused by waste in the river also contributes to waterborne diseases and vector-borne disease. Coupled with air pollution emissions of gases that are not controlled factory will further contribute to disease, respiratory diseases like asthma, allergies, coccidiodomycosis, heart disease and chronic lung, and others.
Changes in weather and ocean can lead to the emergence of diseases associated with heat (heat stroke) and death. Hot temperatures can also cause crop failures that will appear hunger and malnutrition. Changes in extreme weather and increased sea levels due to melting Arctic ice could lead to diseases associated with natural disasters (floods, hurricanes and fires) and deaths due to trauma. The emergence of natural disasters is usually accompanied by the displacement of people into refugee camps places where the disease often occur, such as: diarrhea, malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, psychological trauma, skin diseases, and others.
Shift in the ecosystem can impact on the spread of diseases through water (Waterborne diseases) and the spread of diseases through vectors (vector-borne diseases). Such as increased incidence of Dengue Fever since the emergence of the (ecosystem) of this new breed mosquitoes. With this adamya climate change there is a species of disease vectors (Aedes Agipty eq), viruses, bacteria, plasmodium become more resistant to certain drugs that target these organisms adala it. Also predictable that there are some species that are naturally selected perbuhan or extinct due to this extreme ecosystem. this will also affect climate change (Climat change) the bus to the increase in cases affecting certain diseases such as ARI (drought / forest fires, DHF association with erratic rainy season)
Gradient Environmental pollution caused by waste in the river also contributes to waterborne diseases and vector-borne disease. Coupled with air pollution emissions of gases that are not controlled factory will further contribute to disease, respiratory diseases like asthma, allergies, coccidiodomycosis, heart disease and chronic lung, and others.
The need for policy interventions in the context of Spatial Anticipating Global Warming Impact on Coastal and Small Islands.
The need for policy interventions in the context of Spatial Anticipating Global Warming Impact on Coastal and Small Islands.
In the framework of spatial planning policy, it is one RTRWN policy instruments that can be used for the impact of global warming on coastal regions and small islands. However, in addition to the preparation RTRWN also pursued a policy of revitalization and operation of spatial planning oriented to the use and control of space utilization of coastal areas and small islands with a depth greater detail.
Of spatial policy interventions basically taken over to meet the following objectives:
Realize sustainable development in coastal areas, including coastal cities with all residents and completeness (infrastructure and facilities) that the functions of regions and cities as a food source (the source of nourishment) can still take place.
Reducing vulnerability (vulnerability) of coastal areas and the settlers (inhabitants) from the threat of sea level rise, floods, abrasion, and the threat of nature (natural hazards) others.
Maintaining ongoing ecological processes essential for life support systems and biodiversity in coastal areas to remain stable which is achieved through the integration of natural resource management from upstream to downstream (integrated coastal zone management).
To support the revitalization effort and achievement operation of spatial planning, the necessary supports, such as: (a) preparation of guidelines and norms, standards, procedures and Manual (NSPM) for the acceleration field of spatial decentralization to the regions - in particular for spatial planning and management coastal resources / edge of the water; (b) improving the quality and quantity of human resources and strengthening institutional mechanisms formats and spatial planning, (c) dissemination of products of spatial to the community through public awareness campaig, (d) preparation of information system support and database management of coastal areas and small islands are adequate, and (e) preparation of maps that can be used as a tool to realize the integration and management of coastal areas, small islands and to avoid cross-border conflicts.
Furthermore, in order to manage coastal development in an efficient and effective, necessary strategies of spatial utilization of the matching with the spirit of regional autonomy developed by considering the following factors:
Integration of cross-sectoral and cross-region in the context of the development of coastal areas so as to create consistency in the management of sector and regional development of spatial plans coastal region.
Bottom-up approach or prioritize the role of community (participatory planning process) in the implementation of coastal development, transparent and accountable, to be more accommodative to various inputs and the aspirations of all stakeholders in the implementation of development.
Cooperation between regions (inter-provincial, district and coastal cities, the urban with rural areas, and between upstream and downstream areas) so as to create synergy development with due regard to coastal initiatives, and potential local benefits, while reducing the potential for conflict across the region
Law enforcement is consistent and consistently - both PP, decree, or law - to avoid one-sided interests and for the implementation of role-sharing is 'balanced' between the elements of the stakeholders.
Various sources.
In the framework of spatial planning policy, it is one RTRWN policy instruments that can be used for the impact of global warming on coastal regions and small islands. However, in addition to the preparation RTRWN also pursued a policy of revitalization and operation of spatial planning oriented to the use and control of space utilization of coastal areas and small islands with a depth greater detail.
Of spatial policy interventions basically taken over to meet the following objectives:
Realize sustainable development in coastal areas, including coastal cities with all residents and completeness (infrastructure and facilities) that the functions of regions and cities as a food source (the source of nourishment) can still take place.
Reducing vulnerability (vulnerability) of coastal areas and the settlers (inhabitants) from the threat of sea level rise, floods, abrasion, and the threat of nature (natural hazards) others.
Maintaining ongoing ecological processes essential for life support systems and biodiversity in coastal areas to remain stable which is achieved through the integration of natural resource management from upstream to downstream (integrated coastal zone management).
To support the revitalization effort and achievement operation of spatial planning, the necessary supports, such as: (a) preparation of guidelines and norms, standards, procedures and Manual (NSPM) for the acceleration field of spatial decentralization to the regions - in particular for spatial planning and management coastal resources / edge of the water; (b) improving the quality and quantity of human resources and strengthening institutional mechanisms formats and spatial planning, (c) dissemination of products of spatial to the community through public awareness campaig, (d) preparation of information system support and database management of coastal areas and small islands are adequate, and (e) preparation of maps that can be used as a tool to realize the integration and management of coastal areas, small islands and to avoid cross-border conflicts.
Furthermore, in order to manage coastal development in an efficient and effective, necessary strategies of spatial utilization of the matching with the spirit of regional autonomy developed by considering the following factors:
Integration of cross-sectoral and cross-region in the context of the development of coastal areas so as to create consistency in the management of sector and regional development of spatial plans coastal region.
Bottom-up approach or prioritize the role of community (participatory planning process) in the implementation of coastal development, transparent and accountable, to be more accommodative to various inputs and the aspirations of all stakeholders in the implementation of development.
Cooperation between regions (inter-provincial, district and coastal cities, the urban with rural areas, and between upstream and downstream areas) so as to create synergy development with due regard to coastal initiatives, and potential local benefits, while reducing the potential for conflict across the region
Law enforcement is consistent and consistently - both PP, decree, or law - to avoid one-sided interests and for the implementation of role-sharing is 'balanced' between the elements of the stakeholders.
Various sources.
Anticipate Increase Front Impact and Flood Sea water through the Plan of National स्पतिअल 2
For protected areas in RTRWN, the policies and criteria for referral management patterns of natural disaster-prone areas, nature reserves, wildlife, conservation, and local protected areas (coastal border, and rivers) should be formulated in order to anticipate the environmental damage that might occur.
Besides the anticipation of strategic macro-above, is also necessary to anticipate the impact of sea level rise and flooding that are micro-operations. At the micro level, the cultivation area development in coastal areas should be done by considering several alternatives recommended by the IPCC (1990) as follows:
Relocation; alternative was developed when the economic and environmental impacts due to sea level rise and flood so great that the cultivation areas have shifted more away from the coastline. In extreme conditions, even, should be considered to avoid at all areas that have very high vulnerability.
Accommodation; this alternative is adjusting to the change of nature or risk the possible impact of such reclamation, enhancement or change in agriculture building into brackish water farming (aquaculture); areas tergenangi inevitable, but is expected not to cause a serious threat to the salvation of souls, assets and socio-economic activities and the environment.
Protection; this alternative has two possibilities, namely that are hard structures such as the construction of wave drag (Breakwater) or flood embankments (seawalls) and which are soft structures such as mangroves or hoarding revegetasi sand (beach nourishment). Although the changes tend to be defensive against nature, this alternative needs to be done carefully keeping in mind the natural processes that occur in accordance with the principle of "working with nature".
As for protected areas, priority should be given to the handling of coastal border, border rivers, mangroves, coral reefs, nature reserves wildlife / nature reserves / habitats of flora, fauna, and areas that are ecologically sensitive or have high vulnerability to natural changes or region problematic. For small islands the protection should be given to the islands that have special functions, such as a transit point of fauna, flora and fauna habitats of rare / protected, hankam interests, and so on.
In order for the principle of integrity management of coastal areas of development can actually be realized, then the conservation of protected areas on the upstream side - in particular tropical forests - should also get attention. This is important so that the rate of global warming can be reduced, while reducing the impact of increased scale in coastal areas in the downstream region.
Besides the anticipation of strategic macro-above, is also necessary to anticipate the impact of sea level rise and flooding that are micro-operations. At the micro level, the cultivation area development in coastal areas should be done by considering several alternatives recommended by the IPCC (1990) as follows:
Relocation; alternative was developed when the economic and environmental impacts due to sea level rise and flood so great that the cultivation areas have shifted more away from the coastline. In extreme conditions, even, should be considered to avoid at all areas that have very high vulnerability.
Accommodation; this alternative is adjusting to the change of nature or risk the possible impact of such reclamation, enhancement or change in agriculture building into brackish water farming (aquaculture); areas tergenangi inevitable, but is expected not to cause a serious threat to the salvation of souls, assets and socio-economic activities and the environment.
Protection; this alternative has two possibilities, namely that are hard structures such as the construction of wave drag (Breakwater) or flood embankments (seawalls) and which are soft structures such as mangroves or hoarding revegetasi sand (beach nourishment). Although the changes tend to be defensive against nature, this alternative needs to be done carefully keeping in mind the natural processes that occur in accordance with the principle of "working with nature".
As for protected areas, priority should be given to the handling of coastal border, border rivers, mangroves, coral reefs, nature reserves wildlife / nature reserves / habitats of flora, fauna, and areas that are ecologically sensitive or have high vulnerability to natural changes or region problematic. For small islands the protection should be given to the islands that have special functions, such as a transit point of fauna, flora and fauna habitats of rare / protected, hankam interests, and so on.
In order for the principle of integrity management of coastal areas of development can actually be realized, then the conservation of protected areas on the upstream side - in particular tropical forests - should also get attention. This is important so that the rate of global warming can be reduced, while reducing the impact of increased scale in coastal areas in the downstream region.
Anticipate Increase Front Impact and Flood Sea water through the Plan of National स्पतिअल 2
For protected areas in RTRWN, the policies and criteria for referral management patterns of natural disaster-prone areas, nature reserves, wildlife, conservation, and local protected areas (coastal border, and rivers) should be formulated in order to anticipate the environmental damage that might occur.
Besides the anticipation of strategic macro-above, is also necessary to anticipate the impact of sea level rise and flooding that are micro-operations. At the micro level, the cultivation area development in coastal areas should be done by considering several alternatives recommended by the IPCC (1990) as follows:
Relocation; alternative was developed when the economic and environmental impacts due to sea level rise and flood so great that the cultivation areas have shifted more away from the coastline. In extreme conditions, even, should be considered to avoid at all areas that have very high vulnerability.
Accommodation; this alternative is adjusting to the change of nature or risk the possible impact of such reclamation, enhancement or change in agriculture building into brackish water farming (aquaculture); areas tergenangi inevitable, but is expected not to cause a serious threat to the salvation of souls, assets and socio-economic activities and the environment.
Protection; this alternative has two possibilities, namely that are hard structures such as the construction of wave drag (Breakwater) or flood embankments (seawalls) and which are soft structures such as mangroves or hoarding revegetasi sand (beach nourishment). Although the changes tend to be defensive against nature, this alternative needs to be done carefully keeping in mind the natural processes that occur in accordance with the principle of "working with nature".
As for protected areas, priority should be given to the handling of coastal border, border rivers, mangroves, coral reefs, nature reserves wildlife / nature reserves / habitats of flora, fauna, and areas that are ecologically sensitive or have high vulnerability to natural changes or region problematic. For small islands the protection should be given to the islands that have special functions, such as a transit point of fauna, flora and fauna habitats of rare / protected, hankam interests, and so on.
In order for the principle of integrity management of coastal areas of development can actually be realized, then the conservation of protected areas on the upstream side - in particular tropical forests - should also get attention. This is important so that the rate of global warming can be reduced, while reducing the impact of increased scale in coastal areas in the downstream region.
Besides the anticipation of strategic macro-above, is also necessary to anticipate the impact of sea level rise and flooding that are micro-operations. At the micro level, the cultivation area development in coastal areas should be done by considering several alternatives recommended by the IPCC (1990) as follows:
Relocation; alternative was developed when the economic and environmental impacts due to sea level rise and flood so great that the cultivation areas have shifted more away from the coastline. In extreme conditions, even, should be considered to avoid at all areas that have very high vulnerability.
Accommodation; this alternative is adjusting to the change of nature or risk the possible impact of such reclamation, enhancement or change in agriculture building into brackish water farming (aquaculture); areas tergenangi inevitable, but is expected not to cause a serious threat to the salvation of souls, assets and socio-economic activities and the environment.
Protection; this alternative has two possibilities, namely that are hard structures such as the construction of wave drag (Breakwater) or flood embankments (seawalls) and which are soft structures such as mangroves or hoarding revegetasi sand (beach nourishment). Although the changes tend to be defensive against nature, this alternative needs to be done carefully keeping in mind the natural processes that occur in accordance with the principle of "working with nature".
As for protected areas, priority should be given to the handling of coastal border, border rivers, mangroves, coral reefs, nature reserves wildlife / nature reserves / habitats of flora, fauna, and areas that are ecologically sensitive or have high vulnerability to natural changes or region problematic. For small islands the protection should be given to the islands that have special functions, such as a transit point of fauna, flora and fauna habitats of rare / protected, hankam interests, and so on.
In order for the principle of integrity management of coastal areas of development can actually be realized, then the conservation of protected areas on the upstream side - in particular tropical forests - should also get attention. This is important so that the rate of global warming can be reduced, while reducing the impact of increased scale in coastal areas in the downstream region.
Anticipate Increase Front Impact and Flood Sea water through the Plan of National Spatial
Anticipate Increase Front Impact and Flood Sea water through the Plan of National Spatial
By observing the impact of global warming which has a national scale and the dimensions of time, long-term, then the existence of RTRWN become very important. RTRWN outlines the aspects of legality established by Regulation No.47/1997 as a manifestation of article 20 of Law No.24/1992 on Spatial Planning policy guidance includes the use of state space that shows the pattern and structure of national territory to be achieved during the will come.
Pattern of utilization of national territorial space include: (a) referral policies and criteria for protected area management (including disaster-prone areas such as areas prone to tidal waves and floods), and (b) referral policies and criteria for the management of cultivated areas (forest production, agriculture, mining, tourism, settlement, etc.). While the structure of national territory space utilization include: (a) referral development of national settlement systems and (b) referral development of a national system of regional infrastructure (such as transportation networks, electricity, water resources, and raw water.
In accordance with the dynamics of development and the strategic environment continues to change, then felt the need to mengkajiulang (review) RTRWN setting material (PP 47/1997) in order to always be able to respond to issues and demands the development of the national territory to the front. (please check the table in Appendix 3). Therefore, at this moment the Government was held mengkajiulang RTRWN with respect to the strategic environment changes or new paradigm as follows:
economic globalization and its implications,
regional autonomy and its implications,
handling of inter-state border region and synchronization,
kemaritiman development / marine resources,
development of the area left for poverty reduction and economic crisis,
hydrological recycling,
handling of land subsidence,
Bible point for the utilization of prosperity and security, as well as
global warming and other effects.
Thus, the aspect of sea level rise and flooding should be one of the significant inputs for policy and national regional development strategy is contained in RTRWN especially for the development of coastal areas to remember: (a) the amount of concentration of population that inhabited the coastal region, especially in cities coastal cities, (b) the amount of economic potential of coastal areas owned, (c) the use of the coastal areas that have not been reflecting the synergy between the economic interests of the environment, (d) high space utilization conflicts across sectors and across regions, and (e) yet the creation of functional linkages between upstream and downstream areas, which tend to harm the coastal region.
Based on studies conducted by ADB (1994), the impact of sea level rise and flooding is expected to give a serious disruption to areas such as: Pantura Java, Sumatra, eastern, southern Kalimantan, Sulawesi Barat Daya, and some spot on Western coast of Papua
For the cultivated area, then greater attention should be given to coastal towns that have a strategic role for the coastal region, namely the central area of growth that provide economic, social, and governance for the region. Coastal cities are expected to experience the threat of sea level rise include the Lhokseumawe, Belawan, Bagansiapi-fire, Batam, Kalianda, Jakarta, Tegal, Semarang, Surabaya, Singkawang, Ketapang, Makassar, Pare-Pare, Sinjai. (Detail please check Table 1 in Appendix).
Functional areas that need attention associated with sea level rise and flooding covers 29 areas mainstay, a particular region 11, and the remaining 19 areas. (learn more please check the table in Appendix 2).
Special attention should be given to the development of policy direction and management of infrastructure criteria are important areas for the development of national economy, but has a vulnerability to the impacts of sea level rise and flooding, such as:
some streets of East Cross Sumatra (from Lhokseumawe to Bandar Lampung along the ± 1600 km) and some Java Pantura Cross road (from Jakarta to Surabaya along the ± 900 km) and most of Central Sulawesi Cross (from Pare-pare, Makassar until Bulukumba along ± 250 km).
several national strategic ports, such as Belawan (Medan), Tanjung Priok (Jakarta), Tanjung Mas (Semarang), Pontianak, Tanjung Perak (Surabaya), and the port of Makassar.
Irrigation network in the area of food centers like Pantura Java, Sumatra and the eastern parts of South Sulawesi.
Some strategic airport in Medan, Jakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, Makassar, and Semarang.
By observing the impact of global warming which has a national scale and the dimensions of time, long-term, then the existence of RTRWN become very important. RTRWN outlines the aspects of legality established by Regulation No.47/1997 as a manifestation of article 20 of Law No.24/1992 on Spatial Planning policy guidance includes the use of state space that shows the pattern and structure of national territory to be achieved during the will come.
Pattern of utilization of national territorial space include: (a) referral policies and criteria for protected area management (including disaster-prone areas such as areas prone to tidal waves and floods), and (b) referral policies and criteria for the management of cultivated areas (forest production, agriculture, mining, tourism, settlement, etc.). While the structure of national territory space utilization include: (a) referral development of national settlement systems and (b) referral development of a national system of regional infrastructure (such as transportation networks, electricity, water resources, and raw water.
In accordance with the dynamics of development and the strategic environment continues to change, then felt the need to mengkajiulang (review) RTRWN setting material (PP 47/1997) in order to always be able to respond to issues and demands the development of the national territory to the front. (please check the table in Appendix 3). Therefore, at this moment the Government was held mengkajiulang RTRWN with respect to the strategic environment changes or new paradigm as follows:
economic globalization and its implications,
regional autonomy and its implications,
handling of inter-state border region and synchronization,
kemaritiman development / marine resources,
development of the area left for poverty reduction and economic crisis,
hydrological recycling,
handling of land subsidence,
Bible point for the utilization of prosperity and security, as well as
global warming and other effects.
Thus, the aspect of sea level rise and flooding should be one of the significant inputs for policy and national regional development strategy is contained in RTRWN especially for the development of coastal areas to remember: (a) the amount of concentration of population that inhabited the coastal region, especially in cities coastal cities, (b) the amount of economic potential of coastal areas owned, (c) the use of the coastal areas that have not been reflecting the synergy between the economic interests of the environment, (d) high space utilization conflicts across sectors and across regions, and (e) yet the creation of functional linkages between upstream and downstream areas, which tend to harm the coastal region.
Based on studies conducted by ADB (1994), the impact of sea level rise and flooding is expected to give a serious disruption to areas such as: Pantura Java, Sumatra, eastern, southern Kalimantan, Sulawesi Barat Daya, and some spot on Western coast of Papua
For the cultivated area, then greater attention should be given to coastal towns that have a strategic role for the coastal region, namely the central area of growth that provide economic, social, and governance for the region. Coastal cities are expected to experience the threat of sea level rise include the Lhokseumawe, Belawan, Bagansiapi-fire, Batam, Kalianda, Jakarta, Tegal, Semarang, Surabaya, Singkawang, Ketapang, Makassar, Pare-Pare, Sinjai. (Detail please check Table 1 in Appendix).
Functional areas that need attention associated with sea level rise and flooding covers 29 areas mainstay, a particular region 11, and the remaining 19 areas. (learn more please check the table in Appendix 2).
Special attention should be given to the development of policy direction and management of infrastructure criteria are important areas for the development of national economy, but has a vulnerability to the impacts of sea level rise and flooding, such as:
some streets of East Cross Sumatra (from Lhokseumawe to Bandar Lampung along the ± 1600 km) and some Java Pantura Cross road (from Jakarta to Surabaya along the ± 900 km) and most of Central Sulawesi Cross (from Pare-pare, Makassar until Bulukumba along ± 250 km).
several national strategic ports, such as Belawan (Medan), Tanjung Priok (Jakarta), Tanjung Mas (Semarang), Pontianak, Tanjung Perak (Surabaya), and the port of Makassar.
Irrigation network in the area of food centers like Pantura Java, Sumatra and the eastern parts of South Sulawesi.
Some strategic airport in Medan, Jakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, Makassar, and Semarang.
The impact of rising sea levels and flooding of Environmental Condition Bio-geophysical and Social-Economic Society.
The impact of rising sea levels and flooding of Environmental Condition Bio-geophysical and Social-Economic Society.
Sea level rise would result in general the following impact: (a) increased frequency and intensity of floods, (b) changes in ocean currents and the widespread destruction of mangrove, (c) expansion of sea water intrusion, (d) a threat to the socio-economic activities of society coastal, and (e) reduction in land area or loss of small islands.
The increased frequency and intensity of floods caused by the random pattern of rainfall and short rainy season while the very high rainfall (extreme events). Another possibility is due to backwater effects from coastal to inland areas. The frequency and intensity of flooding is predicted occurs 9 times greater in the next decade where the 80% increase in flooding occurred in South and Southeast Asia (including Indonesia) with an area of the floodwaters reached 2 million square miles. Increasing the volume of water in coastal areas will provide an accumulative effect when the sea level rise and increased frequency and intensity of rain occurred in the same period.
Sea level rise in addition to resulting changes in ocean currents in coastal areas also cause damage to the mangrove ecosystem, which currently only condition is very worrying. Extensive mangrove forests in Indonesia continued to decline from 5,209,543 ha (1982) decreased to 3,235,700 ha (1987) and decreased again to 2,496,185 ha (1993). In a 10-year period (1982-1993), has been a decline in the mangrove forest ± 50% of the total area of the original. If the existence of mangrove untenable, then: coastal abrasion will often occur because there was no wave drag, the pollution of the river to the sea will rise because there was no filter pollutants, and aquaculture farming zones would be threatened by itself.
Spread of sea water intrusion caused by the occurrence of other than sea level rise was also triggered by the occurrence of land subsidence due to ground water exploitation excessive. For example, estimated in the period between 2050 until 2070, then the sea water intrusion will cover 50% of the total area of North Jakarta.
Disruption of socio-economic conditions of society that occurred among others: (a) the disruption of road networks and railway traffic in Pantura East Java and South Sumatra; (b) a pool of settlements in the coastal cities that are in the area of Java Pantura , eastern Sumatra, southern Kalimantan, Sulawesi Barat Daya, and some coastal spots in Papua; (c) loss of cultivated land such as rice fields, brackish fish ponds, and mangrove area of 3.4 million hectares, equivalent to U.S. $ 11.307 million; this picture becomes even more 'blurred' when linked to the existence of centers of food production is only range from only 4% of the total national area, and (d) decrease in land productivity in food centers, such as in the Citarum river basin, Brantas, and Saddang very crucial for the survival of food self-sufficiency in Indonesia. The areas of Indonesia affected by the potential rise in sea level are shown in Figure 1 below.
Threatened coastal area reduction and even the loss of small islands that can reach the number 2000 to 4000 the island, depending on sea level rise that occurred. Assuming the shoreline setback as far as 25 meters, at the end of 2100 century coastal land loss reached 202,500 ha.
For Indonesia, the impact of sea level rise and flooding is more exacerbated by the tropical forest reduction significant, either by fire or by defoliation. Data collected from the Georgetown - International Environmental Law Review (1999) showed that in the period 1997 to 1998 is not less than 1.7 million hectares of forest burning in Sumatra and Kalimantan, due to the influence of El Nino. Even WWF (2000) mention the larger number, ie between 2 to 3.5 million hectares in the same period. If not taken steps to correct the damage to forests - especially those that serve conservation - will cause a run-off upstream of the region, increasing the risk of flooding in pendangkalan and downstream areas, and expand the water scarcity in the long run.
Sea level rise would result in general the following impact: (a) increased frequency and intensity of floods, (b) changes in ocean currents and the widespread destruction of mangrove, (c) expansion of sea water intrusion, (d) a threat to the socio-economic activities of society coastal, and (e) reduction in land area or loss of small islands.
The increased frequency and intensity of floods caused by the random pattern of rainfall and short rainy season while the very high rainfall (extreme events). Another possibility is due to backwater effects from coastal to inland areas. The frequency and intensity of flooding is predicted occurs 9 times greater in the next decade where the 80% increase in flooding occurred in South and Southeast Asia (including Indonesia) with an area of the floodwaters reached 2 million square miles. Increasing the volume of water in coastal areas will provide an accumulative effect when the sea level rise and increased frequency and intensity of rain occurred in the same period.
Sea level rise in addition to resulting changes in ocean currents in coastal areas also cause damage to the mangrove ecosystem, which currently only condition is very worrying. Extensive mangrove forests in Indonesia continued to decline from 5,209,543 ha (1982) decreased to 3,235,700 ha (1987) and decreased again to 2,496,185 ha (1993). In a 10-year period (1982-1993), has been a decline in the mangrove forest ± 50% of the total area of the original. If the existence of mangrove untenable, then: coastal abrasion will often occur because there was no wave drag, the pollution of the river to the sea will rise because there was no filter pollutants, and aquaculture farming zones would be threatened by itself.
Spread of sea water intrusion caused by the occurrence of other than sea level rise was also triggered by the occurrence of land subsidence due to ground water exploitation excessive. For example, estimated in the period between 2050 until 2070, then the sea water intrusion will cover 50% of the total area of North Jakarta.
Disruption of socio-economic conditions of society that occurred among others: (a) the disruption of road networks and railway traffic in Pantura East Java and South Sumatra; (b) a pool of settlements in the coastal cities that are in the area of Java Pantura , eastern Sumatra, southern Kalimantan, Sulawesi Barat Daya, and some coastal spots in Papua; (c) loss of cultivated land such as rice fields, brackish fish ponds, and mangrove area of 3.4 million hectares, equivalent to U.S. $ 11.307 million; this picture becomes even more 'blurred' when linked to the existence of centers of food production is only range from only 4% of the total national area, and (d) decrease in land productivity in food centers, such as in the Citarum river basin, Brantas, and Saddang very crucial for the survival of food self-sufficiency in Indonesia. The areas of Indonesia affected by the potential rise in sea level are shown in Figure 1 below.
Threatened coastal area reduction and even the loss of small islands that can reach the number 2000 to 4000 the island, depending on sea level rise that occurred. Assuming the shoreline setback as far as 25 meters, at the end of 2100 century coastal land loss reached 202,500 ha.
For Indonesia, the impact of sea level rise and flooding is more exacerbated by the tropical forest reduction significant, either by fire or by defoliation. Data collected from the Georgetown - International Environmental Law Review (1999) showed that in the period 1997 to 1998 is not less than 1.7 million hectares of forest burning in Sumatra and Kalimantan, due to the influence of El Nino. Even WWF (2000) mention the larger number, ie between 2 to 3.5 million hectares in the same period. If not taken steps to correct the damage to forests - especially those that serve conservation - will cause a run-off upstream of the region, increasing the risk of flooding in pendangkalan and downstream areas, and expand the water scarcity in the long run.
Global Warming
Global Warming
admin on October 2, 2007
Global warming (global warming) is essentially a phenomenon of global temperature increases from year to year because of the greenhouse effect (greenhouse effect) caused by increased emissions of gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), dinitrooksida (N2O) and CFCs so that solar energy trapped in the earth's atmosphere. The literature shows an increase in global temperatures - including Indonesia - which occurred in the range 1,5-40 Celsius in the late 21st century.
Global warming impact caused extensive and serious for the bio-geophysical environment (such as melting polar ice caps, sea level rise, expanding deserts, increasing rainfall and floods, climate change, extinction of certain flora and fauna, the migration of fauna and pest and disease, etc. ). While the impact on the socio-economic activities of the community include: (a) disruption of the function of coastal areas and coastal cities, (b) disruption of the function of infrastructure and facilities such as road networks, ports and airports (c) disruption of residential areas, (d) reduction productivity of agricultural land, (e) increased risk of cancer and disease, etc.). In this paper, focus is given to the anticipation of the two effects of global warming, namely sea level rise (sea-level rise) and the flood.
admin on October 2, 2007
Global warming (global warming) is essentially a phenomenon of global temperature increases from year to year because of the greenhouse effect (greenhouse effect) caused by increased emissions of gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), dinitrooksida (N2O) and CFCs so that solar energy trapped in the earth's atmosphere. The literature shows an increase in global temperatures - including Indonesia - which occurred in the range 1,5-40 Celsius in the late 21st century.
Global warming impact caused extensive and serious for the bio-geophysical environment (such as melting polar ice caps, sea level rise, expanding deserts, increasing rainfall and floods, climate change, extinction of certain flora and fauna, the migration of fauna and pest and disease, etc. ). While the impact on the socio-economic activities of the community include: (a) disruption of the function of coastal areas and coastal cities, (b) disruption of the function of infrastructure and facilities such as road networks, ports and airports (c) disruption of residential areas, (d) reduction productivity of agricultural land, (e) increased risk of cancer and disease, etc.). In this paper, focus is given to the anticipation of the two effects of global warming, namely sea level rise (sea-level rise) and the flood.
Tuesday, December 1, 2009
Ecological Disturbance
Ecological Disturbance
Animals and plants are living creatures that are difficult to avoid the effects of warming because most of the land has been controlled by humans. In global warming, animals tend to migrate toward the poles or to the mountains. Plants will change the direction of growth, seeking new areas as old habitats grow too warm. However, human development will prevent this movement. The species that migrate to the north or south is blocked by the cities or agricultural lands may be dead. Some types of species that are not capable of quickly moving toward the poles may disappear.
Animals and plants are living creatures that are difficult to avoid the effects of warming because most of the land has been controlled by humans. In global warming, animals tend to migrate toward the poles or to the mountains. Plants will change the direction of growth, seeking new areas as old habitats grow too warm. However, human development will prevent this movement. The species that migrate to the north or south is blocked by the cities or agricultural lands may be dead. Some types of species that are not capable of quickly moving toward the poles may disappear.
Tend Global Temperature Rise
Tend Global Temperature Rise
One might assume that a warmer Earth would produce more food than ever before, but this is not the same in some places. Southern Canada, for example, may benefit from more rainfall and longer growing season. On the other hand, semi-tropical agricultural land dry in some parts of Africa may not be able to grow. Desert agricultural areas that use irrigation water from the mountains far may suffer if the snowpack (snow collection) winter, which serves as a natural reservoir, melts before the peak months of planting. Crops and forests may experience insect and disease attacks more powerful.
One might assume that a warmer Earth would produce more food than ever before, but this is not the same in some places. Southern Canada, for example, may benefit from more rainfall and longer growing season. On the other hand, semi-tropical agricultural land dry in some parts of Africa may not be able to grow. Desert agricultural areas that use irrigation water from the mountains far may suffer if the snowpack (snow collection) winter, which serves as a natural reservoir, melts before the peak months of planting. Crops and forests may experience insect and disease attacks more powerful.
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