How Computer Viruses Work
by Marshall Brain
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Please copy/paste the following text to properly cite this HowStuffWorks article:
Brain, Marshall. "How Computer Viruses Work." 01 April 2000. HowStuffWorks.com. 07 December 2009.
Inside this Article
Introduction to How Computer Viruses Work
Virus Origins
Virus History
Virus Evolution
E-mail Viruses
Worms
See more »
How to Protect Your Computer from Viruses
Lots More Information
See all Computer & Internet Security articles
What Not to Do With Spam E-mails
Sunday, December 13, 2009
Thursday, December 10, 2009
Kerajaan-kerajaan kuno
Kerajaan-kerajaan kuno
Kerajaan-kerajaan kuno di Asia Tenggara pada umumnya dapat dibagi menjadi dua kategori, yaitu kerajaan-kerajaan agraris dan kerajaan-kerajaan maritim.
Kegiatan utama kerajaan-kerajaan agraris adalah pertanian. Mereka kebanyakan terletak di semenanjung Asia Tenggara. Contoh kerajaan agraris adalah Kerajaan Ayutthaya, yang terletak di delta sungai Chao Phraya, dan Kerajaan Khmer yang berada di Tonle Sap. Kerajaan-kerajaan maritim kegiatan utamanya adalah perdagangan melalui laut. Kerajaan Malaka dan Kerajaan Sriwijaya adalah contoh dari kerajaan maritim.
Tidak banyak yang diketahui mengenai kepercayaan dan praktek keagamaan Asia Tenggara, sebelum kedatangan dan pengaruh agama dari para pedagang India pada abad ke-2 Masehi dan seterusnya. Sebelum abad ke-13, agama-agama Buddha dan Hindu adalah kepercayaan utama di Asia Tenggara. Kerajaan-kerajaan di daratan (semenanjung) Asia Tenggara pada umumnya memeluk agama Buddha, sedangkan kerajaan-kerajaan di kepulauan Melayu (Nusantara) umumnya lebih dipengaruhi agama Hindu. Beberapa kerajaan yang berkembang di semenanjung ini, awalnya bermula di daerah yang sekarang menjadi negara-negara Myanmar, Kamboja dan Vietnam.
Peninggalan ibukota Kerajaan Ayutthaya, ThailandKekuasaan dominan yang pertama kali muncul di kepulauan adalah Sriwijaya di Sumatra. Dari abad ke-5 Masehi, Palembang sebagai ibukota Sriwijaya menjadi pelabuhan besar dan berfungsi sebagai pelabuhan persinggahan (entrepot) pada Jalur Rempah-rempah (spice route) yang terjalin antara India dan Tiongkok. Sriwijaya juga merupakan pusat pengaruh dan pendidikan agama Buddha yang cukup berpengaruh. Kemajuan teknologi kelautan pada abad ke-10 Masehi membuat pengaruh dan kemakmuran Sriwijaya memudar. Kemajuan tersebut membuat para pedagang Tiongkok dan India untuk dapat secara langsung mengirimkan barang-barang diantara keduanya, serta membuat kerajaan Chola di India Selatan dapat melakukan serangkaian penyerangan penghancuran terhadap daerah-daerah kekuasaan Sriwijaya, yang mengakhiri fungsi Palembang sebagai pelabuhan persinggahan.
Pulau Jawa kerap kali didominasi oleh beberapa kerajaan agraris yang saling bersaing satu sama lain, termasuk diantaranya kerajaan-kerajaan wangsa Syailendra, Mataram Kuno dan akhirnya Majapahit.
Para pedagang Muslim mulai mengunjungi Asia Tenggara pada abad ke-12 Masehi. Samudera Pasai adalah kerajaan Islam yang pertama. Ketika itu, Sriwijaya telah diambang keruntuhan akibat perselisihan internal. Kesultanan Malaka, yang didirikan oleh salah seorang pangeran Sriwijaya, berkembang kekuasaannya dalam perlindungan Tiongkok dan mengambil alih peranan Sriwijaya sebelumnya. Agama Islam kemudian menyebar di seantero kepulauan selama abad ke-13 dan abad ke-14 menggantikan agama Hindu, dimana Malaka (yang para penguasanya telah beragama Islam) berfungsi sebagai pusat penyebarannya di wilayah ini.
Beberapa kesultanan lainnya, seperti kesultanan Brunei di Kalimantan dan kesultanan Sulu di Filipina secara relatif mengalami sedikit hubungan dengan kerajaan-kerajaan lainnya.
Kerajaan-kerajaan kuno di Asia Tenggara pada umumnya dapat dibagi menjadi dua kategori, yaitu kerajaan-kerajaan agraris dan kerajaan-kerajaan maritim.
Kegiatan utama kerajaan-kerajaan agraris adalah pertanian. Mereka kebanyakan terletak di semenanjung Asia Tenggara. Contoh kerajaan agraris adalah Kerajaan Ayutthaya, yang terletak di delta sungai Chao Phraya, dan Kerajaan Khmer yang berada di Tonle Sap. Kerajaan-kerajaan maritim kegiatan utamanya adalah perdagangan melalui laut. Kerajaan Malaka dan Kerajaan Sriwijaya adalah contoh dari kerajaan maritim.
Tidak banyak yang diketahui mengenai kepercayaan dan praktek keagamaan Asia Tenggara, sebelum kedatangan dan pengaruh agama dari para pedagang India pada abad ke-2 Masehi dan seterusnya. Sebelum abad ke-13, agama-agama Buddha dan Hindu adalah kepercayaan utama di Asia Tenggara. Kerajaan-kerajaan di daratan (semenanjung) Asia Tenggara pada umumnya memeluk agama Buddha, sedangkan kerajaan-kerajaan di kepulauan Melayu (Nusantara) umumnya lebih dipengaruhi agama Hindu. Beberapa kerajaan yang berkembang di semenanjung ini, awalnya bermula di daerah yang sekarang menjadi negara-negara Myanmar, Kamboja dan Vietnam.
Peninggalan ibukota Kerajaan Ayutthaya, ThailandKekuasaan dominan yang pertama kali muncul di kepulauan adalah Sriwijaya di Sumatra. Dari abad ke-5 Masehi, Palembang sebagai ibukota Sriwijaya menjadi pelabuhan besar dan berfungsi sebagai pelabuhan persinggahan (entrepot) pada Jalur Rempah-rempah (spice route) yang terjalin antara India dan Tiongkok. Sriwijaya juga merupakan pusat pengaruh dan pendidikan agama Buddha yang cukup berpengaruh. Kemajuan teknologi kelautan pada abad ke-10 Masehi membuat pengaruh dan kemakmuran Sriwijaya memudar. Kemajuan tersebut membuat para pedagang Tiongkok dan India untuk dapat secara langsung mengirimkan barang-barang diantara keduanya, serta membuat kerajaan Chola di India Selatan dapat melakukan serangkaian penyerangan penghancuran terhadap daerah-daerah kekuasaan Sriwijaya, yang mengakhiri fungsi Palembang sebagai pelabuhan persinggahan.
Pulau Jawa kerap kali didominasi oleh beberapa kerajaan agraris yang saling bersaing satu sama lain, termasuk diantaranya kerajaan-kerajaan wangsa Syailendra, Mataram Kuno dan akhirnya Majapahit.
Para pedagang Muslim mulai mengunjungi Asia Tenggara pada abad ke-12 Masehi. Samudera Pasai adalah kerajaan Islam yang pertama. Ketika itu, Sriwijaya telah diambang keruntuhan akibat perselisihan internal. Kesultanan Malaka, yang didirikan oleh salah seorang pangeran Sriwijaya, berkembang kekuasaannya dalam perlindungan Tiongkok dan mengambil alih peranan Sriwijaya sebelumnya. Agama Islam kemudian menyebar di seantero kepulauan selama abad ke-13 dan abad ke-14 menggantikan agama Hindu, dimana Malaka (yang para penguasanya telah beragama Islam) berfungsi sebagai pusat penyebarannya di wilayah ini.
Beberapa kesultanan lainnya, seperti kesultanan Brunei di Kalimantan dan kesultanan Sulu di Filipina secara relatif mengalami sedikit hubungan dengan kerajaan-kerajaan lainnya.
Wednesday, December 9, 2009
Museum Geologi Bandung
Museum Geologi Bandung
MASA PENJAJAHAN BELANDA
Keberadaan Museum Geologi berkaitan erat dengan sejarah penyelidikan geologi dan tambang di wilayah Nusantara yang dimulai sejak pertengahan abad ke-17 oleh para ahli dari Eropa. Setelah di Eropa terjadi revolusi industri pada pertengahan abad ke-18, mereka sangat membutuhkan bahan tambang sebagai bahan dasar industri. Pemerintah Belanda sadar akan pentingnya penguasaan bahan galian di wilayah Nusantara. Dengan jalan itu diharapkan perkembangan industri di Negeri Belanda dapat ditunjang. Maka dibentuklah Dienst van het Mijnwezen pada tahun 1850. Kelembagaan ini berganti nama jadi Dienst van den Mijnbouw pada tahun 1922, yang bertugas melakukan penyelidikan geologi dan sumberdaya mineral. Hasil penyelidikan yang berupa contoh-contoh batuan, mineral, fosil, laporan dan peta memerlukan tempat untuk penganalisaan dan penyimpanan, sehingga pada tahun 1928 Dienst van den Mijnbouw membangun gedung di Rembrandt Straat Bandung. Gedung tersebut pada awalnya bernama Geologisch Laboratorium yang kemudian juga disebut Geologisch Museum. Gedung Geologisch Laboratorium dirancang dengan gaya Art Deco oleh arsitek Ir. Menalda van Schouwenburg, dan dibangun selama 11 bulan dengan 300 pekerja dan menghabiskan dana 400 Gulden, mulai pertengahan tahun 1928 sampai diresmikannya pada tanggal 16 Mei 1929. Peresmian tersebut bertepatan dengan penyelenggaraan Kongres Ilmu Pengetahuan Pasifik ke-4 (Fourth Pacific Science Congress) di Bandung pada tanggal 18-24 Mei 1929.
Museum Geologi pada tahun 1929 Peserta Kongres
MASA PENJAJAHAN BELANDA
Keberadaan Museum Geologi berkaitan erat dengan sejarah penyelidikan geologi dan tambang di wilayah Nusantara yang dimulai sejak pertengahan abad ke-17 oleh para ahli dari Eropa. Setelah di Eropa terjadi revolusi industri pada pertengahan abad ke-18, mereka sangat membutuhkan bahan tambang sebagai bahan dasar industri. Pemerintah Belanda sadar akan pentingnya penguasaan bahan galian di wilayah Nusantara. Dengan jalan itu diharapkan perkembangan industri di Negeri Belanda dapat ditunjang. Maka dibentuklah Dienst van het Mijnwezen pada tahun 1850. Kelembagaan ini berganti nama jadi Dienst van den Mijnbouw pada tahun 1922, yang bertugas melakukan penyelidikan geologi dan sumberdaya mineral. Hasil penyelidikan yang berupa contoh-contoh batuan, mineral, fosil, laporan dan peta memerlukan tempat untuk penganalisaan dan penyimpanan, sehingga pada tahun 1928 Dienst van den Mijnbouw membangun gedung di Rembrandt Straat Bandung. Gedung tersebut pada awalnya bernama Geologisch Laboratorium yang kemudian juga disebut Geologisch Museum. Gedung Geologisch Laboratorium dirancang dengan gaya Art Deco oleh arsitek Ir. Menalda van Schouwenburg, dan dibangun selama 11 bulan dengan 300 pekerja dan menghabiskan dana 400 Gulden, mulai pertengahan tahun 1928 sampai diresmikannya pada tanggal 16 Mei 1929. Peresmian tersebut bertepatan dengan penyelenggaraan Kongres Ilmu Pengetahuan Pasifik ke-4 (Fourth Pacific Science Congress) di Bandung pada tanggal 18-24 Mei 1929.
Museum Geologi pada tahun 1929 Peserta Kongres
Timun Emas
Timun Emas
Pada zaman dahulu, hiduplah sepasang suami istri petani. Mereka tinggal di sebuah desa di dekat hutan. Mereka hidup bahagia. Sayangnya mereka belum saja dikaruniai seorang anak pun.
Setiap hari mereka berdoa pada Yang Maha Kuasa. Mereka berdoa agar segera diberi seorang anak. Suatu hari seorang raksasa melewati tempat tinggal mereka. Raksasa itu mendengar doa suami istri itu. Raksasa itu kemudian memberi mereka biji mentimun.
“Tanamlah biji ini. Nanti kau akan mendapatkan seorang anak perempuan,” kata Raksasa. “Terima kasih, Raksasa,” kata suami istri itu. “Tapi ada syaratnya. Pada usia 17 tahun anak itu harus kalian serahkan padaku,” sahut Raksasa. Suami istri itu sangat merindukan seorang anak. Karena itu tanpa berpikir panjang mereka setuju.
Suami istri petani itu kemudian menanam biji-biji mentimun itu. Setiap hari mereka merawat tanaman yang mulai tumbuh itu dengan sebaik mungkin. Berbulan-bulan kemudian tumbuhlah sebuah mentimun berwarna keemasan.
Buah mentimun itu semakin lama semakin besar dan berat. Ketika buah itu masak, mereka memetiknya. Dengan hati-hati mereka memotong buah itu. Betapa terkejutnya mereka, di dalam buah itu mereka menemukan bayi perempuan yang sangat cantik. Suami istri itu sangat bahagia. Mereka memberi nama bayi itu Timun Mas.
Tahun demi tahun berlalu. Timun Mas tumbuh menjadi gadis yang cantik. Kedua orang tuanya sangat bangga padanya. Tapi mereka menjadi sangat takut. Karena pada ulang tahun Timun Mas yang ke-17, sang raksasa datang kembali. Raksasa itu menangih janji untuk mengambil Timun Mas.
Petani itu mencoba tenang. “Tunggulah sebentar. Timun Mas sedang bermain. Istriku akan memanggilnya,” katanya. Petani itu segera menemui anaknya. “Anakkku, ambillah ini,” katanya sambil menyerahkan sebuah kantung kain. “Ini akan menolongmu melawan Raksasa. Sekarang larilah secepat mungkin,” katanya. Maka Timun Mas pun segera melarikan diri.
Suami istri itu sedih atas kepergian Timun Mas. Tapi mereka tidak rela kalau anaknya menjadi santapan Raksasa. Raksasa menunggu cukup lama. Ia menjadi tak sabar. Ia tahu, telah dibohongi suami istri itu. Lalu ia pun menghancurkan pondok petani itu. Lalu ia mengejar Timun Mas ke hutan.
Raksasa segera berlari mengejar Timun Mas. Raksasa semakin dekat. Timun Mas segera mengambil segenggam garam dari kantung kainnya. Lalu garam itu ditaburkan ke arah Raksasa. Tiba-tiba sebuah laut yang luas pun terhampar. Raksasa terpaksa berenang dengan susah payah.
Timun Mas berlari lagi. Tapi kemudian Raksasa hampir berhasil menyusulnya. Timun Mas kembali mengambil benda ajaib dari kantungnya. Ia mengambil segenggam cabai. Cabai itu dilemparnya ke arah raksasa. Seketika pohon dengan ranting dan duri yang tajam memerangkap Raksasa. Raksasa berteriak kesakitan. Sementara Timun Mas berlari menyelamatkan diri.
Tapi Raksasa sungguh kuat. Ia lagi-lagi hampir menangkap Timun Mas. Maka Timun Mas pun mengeluarkan benda ajaib ketiga. Ia menebarkan biji-biji mentimun ajaib. Seketika tumbuhlah kebun mentimun yang sangat luas. Raksasa sangat letih dan kelaparan. Ia pun makan mentimun-mentimun yang segar itu dengan lahap. Karena terlalu banyak makan, Raksasa tertidur.
Timun Mas kembali melarikan diri. Ia berlari sekuat tenaga. Tapi lama kelamaan tenaganya habis. Lebih celaka lagi karena Raksasa terbangun dari tidurnya. Raksasa lagi-lagi hampir menangkapnya. Timun Mas sangat ketakutan. Ia pun melemparkan senjatanya yang terakhir, segenggam terasi udang. Lagi-lagi terjadi keajaiban. Sebuah danau lumpur yang luas terhampar. Raksasa terjerembab ke dalamnya. Tangannya hampir menggapai Timun Mas. Tapi danau lumpur itu menariknya ke dasar. Raksasa panik. Ia tak bisa bernapas, lalu tenggelam.
Timun Mas lega. Ia telah selamat. Timun Mas pun kembali ke rumah orang tuanya. Ayah dan Ibu Timun Mas senang sekali melihat Timun Mas selamat. Mereka menyambutnya. “Terima Kasih, Tuhan. Kau telah menyelamatkan anakku,” kata mereka gembira.
Sejak saat itu Timun Mas dapat hidup tenang bersama orang tuanya. Mereka dapat hidup bahagia tanpa ketakutan lagi.
Pada zaman dahulu, hiduplah sepasang suami istri petani. Mereka tinggal di sebuah desa di dekat hutan. Mereka hidup bahagia. Sayangnya mereka belum saja dikaruniai seorang anak pun.
Setiap hari mereka berdoa pada Yang Maha Kuasa. Mereka berdoa agar segera diberi seorang anak. Suatu hari seorang raksasa melewati tempat tinggal mereka. Raksasa itu mendengar doa suami istri itu. Raksasa itu kemudian memberi mereka biji mentimun.
“Tanamlah biji ini. Nanti kau akan mendapatkan seorang anak perempuan,” kata Raksasa. “Terima kasih, Raksasa,” kata suami istri itu. “Tapi ada syaratnya. Pada usia 17 tahun anak itu harus kalian serahkan padaku,” sahut Raksasa. Suami istri itu sangat merindukan seorang anak. Karena itu tanpa berpikir panjang mereka setuju.
Suami istri petani itu kemudian menanam biji-biji mentimun itu. Setiap hari mereka merawat tanaman yang mulai tumbuh itu dengan sebaik mungkin. Berbulan-bulan kemudian tumbuhlah sebuah mentimun berwarna keemasan.
Buah mentimun itu semakin lama semakin besar dan berat. Ketika buah itu masak, mereka memetiknya. Dengan hati-hati mereka memotong buah itu. Betapa terkejutnya mereka, di dalam buah itu mereka menemukan bayi perempuan yang sangat cantik. Suami istri itu sangat bahagia. Mereka memberi nama bayi itu Timun Mas.
Tahun demi tahun berlalu. Timun Mas tumbuh menjadi gadis yang cantik. Kedua orang tuanya sangat bangga padanya. Tapi mereka menjadi sangat takut. Karena pada ulang tahun Timun Mas yang ke-17, sang raksasa datang kembali. Raksasa itu menangih janji untuk mengambil Timun Mas.
Petani itu mencoba tenang. “Tunggulah sebentar. Timun Mas sedang bermain. Istriku akan memanggilnya,” katanya. Petani itu segera menemui anaknya. “Anakkku, ambillah ini,” katanya sambil menyerahkan sebuah kantung kain. “Ini akan menolongmu melawan Raksasa. Sekarang larilah secepat mungkin,” katanya. Maka Timun Mas pun segera melarikan diri.
Suami istri itu sedih atas kepergian Timun Mas. Tapi mereka tidak rela kalau anaknya menjadi santapan Raksasa. Raksasa menunggu cukup lama. Ia menjadi tak sabar. Ia tahu, telah dibohongi suami istri itu. Lalu ia pun menghancurkan pondok petani itu. Lalu ia mengejar Timun Mas ke hutan.
Raksasa segera berlari mengejar Timun Mas. Raksasa semakin dekat. Timun Mas segera mengambil segenggam garam dari kantung kainnya. Lalu garam itu ditaburkan ke arah Raksasa. Tiba-tiba sebuah laut yang luas pun terhampar. Raksasa terpaksa berenang dengan susah payah.
Timun Mas berlari lagi. Tapi kemudian Raksasa hampir berhasil menyusulnya. Timun Mas kembali mengambil benda ajaib dari kantungnya. Ia mengambil segenggam cabai. Cabai itu dilemparnya ke arah raksasa. Seketika pohon dengan ranting dan duri yang tajam memerangkap Raksasa. Raksasa berteriak kesakitan. Sementara Timun Mas berlari menyelamatkan diri.
Tapi Raksasa sungguh kuat. Ia lagi-lagi hampir menangkap Timun Mas. Maka Timun Mas pun mengeluarkan benda ajaib ketiga. Ia menebarkan biji-biji mentimun ajaib. Seketika tumbuhlah kebun mentimun yang sangat luas. Raksasa sangat letih dan kelaparan. Ia pun makan mentimun-mentimun yang segar itu dengan lahap. Karena terlalu banyak makan, Raksasa tertidur.
Timun Mas kembali melarikan diri. Ia berlari sekuat tenaga. Tapi lama kelamaan tenaganya habis. Lebih celaka lagi karena Raksasa terbangun dari tidurnya. Raksasa lagi-lagi hampir menangkapnya. Timun Mas sangat ketakutan. Ia pun melemparkan senjatanya yang terakhir, segenggam terasi udang. Lagi-lagi terjadi keajaiban. Sebuah danau lumpur yang luas terhampar. Raksasa terjerembab ke dalamnya. Tangannya hampir menggapai Timun Mas. Tapi danau lumpur itu menariknya ke dasar. Raksasa panik. Ia tak bisa bernapas, lalu tenggelam.
Timun Mas lega. Ia telah selamat. Timun Mas pun kembali ke rumah orang tuanya. Ayah dan Ibu Timun Mas senang sekali melihat Timun Mas selamat. Mereka menyambutnya. “Terima Kasih, Tuhan. Kau telah menyelamatkan anakku,” kata mereka gembira.
Sejak saat itu Timun Mas dapat hidup tenang bersama orang tuanya. Mereka dapat hidup bahagia tanpa ketakutan lagi.
Recount
Recount
Recount adalah menceritakan kembali suatu peristiwa di masa lalu dalam bentuk paragraf. Biasanya, paragraf dibagi menjadi 3 bagian yaitu:
Orientation berisi tentang what (apa), when (kapan), where (dimana), who (siapa), dll.
Event menceritakan urutan peristiwa yang terjadi.
Reorientation bagian penutup cerita dan bisa ada kesimpulan. Recount adalah menceritakan kembali suatu peristiwa di masa lalu dalam bentuk paragraf. Biasanya, paragraf dibagi menjadi 3 bagian yaitu:
Orientation berisi tentang what (apa), when (kapan), where (dimana), who (siapa), dll.
Event menceritakan urutan peristiwa yang terjadi.
Reorientation bagian penutup cerita dan bisa ada kesimpulan.
Recount adalah menceritakan kembali suatu peristiwa di masa lalu dalam bentuk paragraf. Biasanya, paragraf dibagi menjadi 3 bagian yaitu:
Orientation berisi tentang what (apa), when (kapan), where (dimana), who (siapa), dll.
Event menceritakan urutan peristiwa yang terjadi.
Reorientation bagian penutup cerita dan bisa ada kesimpulan. Recount adalah menceritakan kembali suatu peristiwa di masa lalu dalam bentuk paragraf. Biasanya, paragraf dibagi menjadi 3 bagian yaitu:
Orientation berisi tentang what (apa), when (kapan), where (dimana), who (siapa), dll.
Event menceritakan urutan peristiwa yang terjadi.
Reorientation bagian penutup cerita dan bisa ada kesimpulan.
Narrative Text
Narrative Text
Long ago, before automobiles had been invented people came to town to shop or go to the bank or post office in buggies or wagons drawn by horses. The horses had to be tied to a hitching post so that they didn't wander around while their owner shopped. A long hitching post and rail was built along side the street next to the long side of the store building. The buggies and horses were safer there than if they were tied out in front on the main street which was then U. S. 50.
One winter there came a deep snow, maybe as much as 8 or 9 inches. The snow piled up high on the steep roof of all the buildings in town, including the tall store. People needed to shop or go to the bank but horses could come through snow even that deep. Several wagons parked alongside the hitching post and the horses were tied to the rail waiting there for their owners to return. It had turned quite warm, the sun had come out. Heat from inside the store and the sun on the outside heated up the slates on the roof and melted the underside of the snow. Then, all of a sudden, all the roof snow slid off the slates, just like an avalanche, and dropped down right on top of the horses tied to the hitching rail. Snow can be very heavy and there was lots of snow on that roof. It was a terrible accident. All of the horses were frightened. They tried to break free. Two of the horses were killed, several of them were knocked down and some had legs broken. The buggies were badly crushed. People came running to help free the horses and treat them if they could. The accident story was soon in the newspaper. People quickly learned not to ever tie their horses to the hitching rail next to the tall building if it had snowed and it was still on the store roof.
Dahulu kala, sebelum mobil itu telah ditemukan, orang datang ke kota untuk berbelanja atau pergi ke bank atau kantor pos di kereta atau kereta yang ditarik oleh kuda. Kuda-kuda itu harus diikat ke posting hitching sehingga mereka tidak berkeliaran di saat pemiliknya berbelanja. Hitching panjang pos dan kereta api ini dibangun di sepanjang sisi jalan sebelah sisi panjang bangunan toko. Kereta dan kuda-kuda yang lebih aman di sana daripada jika mereka diikat di depan di jalan utama yang kemudian US 50.
Satu musim dingin datang salju yang mendalam, mungkin sebanyak 8 atau 9 inci. Salju menumpuk tinggi di atap curam semua bangunan di kota, termasuk toko yang tinggi. Orang-orang yang diperlukan untuk berbelanja atau pergi ke bank tetapi kuda bisa datang melalui bahkan salju yang dalam. Beberapa gerobak yang diparkir di samping pos dan hitching kuda-kuda itu diikat ke pagar menunggu di sana untuk pemilik mereka kembali. Itu telah berubah cukup hangat, matahari telah keluar. Panas dari dalam toko dan matahari di luar memanaskan papan tulis di atap dan melelehkan bawah salju. Kemudian, tiba-tiba, semua atap salju turun dari papan tulis, seperti tanah longsor, dan jatuh tepat di atas kuda-kuda itu diikat ke hitching rel. Salju dapat menjadi sangat berat dan ada banyak salju di atap itu. Itu adalah kecelakaan yang mengerikan. Semua kuda-kuda ketakutan. Mereka mencoba membebaskan diri. Dua dari kuda-kuda itu tewas, beberapa dari mereka mengetuk turun dan beberapa punya kaki patah. Parah pada kereta hancur. Orang-orang datang berlari untuk membantu membebaskan kuda dan memperlakukan mereka jika mereka bisa. Cerita kecelakaan segera di surat kabar. Orang dengan cepat belajar untuk tidak pernah mengikat kuda-kuda mereka ke rel hitching di sebelah gedung tinggi jika salju turun dan masih berada di atap toko.
Long ago, before automobiles had been invented people came to town to shop or go to the bank or post office in buggies or wagons drawn by horses. The horses had to be tied to a hitching post so that they didn't wander around while their owner shopped. A long hitching post and rail was built along side the street next to the long side of the store building. The buggies and horses were safer there than if they were tied out in front on the main street which was then U. S. 50.
One winter there came a deep snow, maybe as much as 8 or 9 inches. The snow piled up high on the steep roof of all the buildings in town, including the tall store. People needed to shop or go to the bank but horses could come through snow even that deep. Several wagons parked alongside the hitching post and the horses were tied to the rail waiting there for their owners to return. It had turned quite warm, the sun had come out. Heat from inside the store and the sun on the outside heated up the slates on the roof and melted the underside of the snow. Then, all of a sudden, all the roof snow slid off the slates, just like an avalanche, and dropped down right on top of the horses tied to the hitching rail. Snow can be very heavy and there was lots of snow on that roof. It was a terrible accident. All of the horses were frightened. They tried to break free. Two of the horses were killed, several of them were knocked down and some had legs broken. The buggies were badly crushed. People came running to help free the horses and treat them if they could. The accident story was soon in the newspaper. People quickly learned not to ever tie their horses to the hitching rail next to the tall building if it had snowed and it was still on the store roof.
Dahulu kala, sebelum mobil itu telah ditemukan, orang datang ke kota untuk berbelanja atau pergi ke bank atau kantor pos di kereta atau kereta yang ditarik oleh kuda. Kuda-kuda itu harus diikat ke posting hitching sehingga mereka tidak berkeliaran di saat pemiliknya berbelanja. Hitching panjang pos dan kereta api ini dibangun di sepanjang sisi jalan sebelah sisi panjang bangunan toko. Kereta dan kuda-kuda yang lebih aman di sana daripada jika mereka diikat di depan di jalan utama yang kemudian US 50.
Satu musim dingin datang salju yang mendalam, mungkin sebanyak 8 atau 9 inci. Salju menumpuk tinggi di atap curam semua bangunan di kota, termasuk toko yang tinggi. Orang-orang yang diperlukan untuk berbelanja atau pergi ke bank tetapi kuda bisa datang melalui bahkan salju yang dalam. Beberapa gerobak yang diparkir di samping pos dan hitching kuda-kuda itu diikat ke pagar menunggu di sana untuk pemilik mereka kembali. Itu telah berubah cukup hangat, matahari telah keluar. Panas dari dalam toko dan matahari di luar memanaskan papan tulis di atap dan melelehkan bawah salju. Kemudian, tiba-tiba, semua atap salju turun dari papan tulis, seperti tanah longsor, dan jatuh tepat di atas kuda-kuda itu diikat ke hitching rel. Salju dapat menjadi sangat berat dan ada banyak salju di atap itu. Itu adalah kecelakaan yang mengerikan. Semua kuda-kuda ketakutan. Mereka mencoba membebaskan diri. Dua dari kuda-kuda itu tewas, beberapa dari mereka mengetuk turun dan beberapa punya kaki patah. Parah pada kereta hancur. Orang-orang datang berlari untuk membantu membebaskan kuda dan memperlakukan mereka jika mereka bisa. Cerita kecelakaan segera di surat kabar. Orang dengan cepat belajar untuk tidak pernah mengikat kuda-kuda mereka ke rel hitching di sebelah gedung tinggi jika salju turun dan masih berada di atap toko.
Biografi Barack Obama
Biografi Barack Obama
Biografi Singkat Barack Obama : Presiden Amerika Serikat ke-44
Proses pemilihan presiden di Amerika adalah sebuah drama politik yang melelahkan, lahir dari sejarah 200-an tahun, dan menjadi “buku panduan” bagi pemilihan presiden negara-negara lainnya. Dan hasilnya, mau tak mau diakui, akan berpengaruh bagi hidup banyak warga bangsa lainnya (antara lain: perang, terorisme, krisis finansial & teknologi yang berasal dari AS ). Namun ada yang membedakan proses tahun ini dibandingkan periode-periode sebelumnya. Tahun ini, pemilihan presiden Amerika Serikat menjadi semakin populer dan ikut diperhatikan oleh banyak orang dari berbagai golongan dan kelas: dari warga anak kecil di Kenya sampai tante-tante di Tegal, dari Hawai sampai Munich . Pemicunya adalah kandidat bernama Barack Obama. Obama bagi banyak golongan adalah simbol sekaligus cermin dan juga fenomena.
Obama adalah manusia abu-abu, lahir dan besar dalam persimpangan budaya yang membuatnya kesulitan mencari jatidiri di awal masa hidupnya. Anak dari seorang Kenya berkulit hitam legam dan ibu Amerika berkulit seputih susu, dibesarkan secara sederhana dalam budaya kulit putih namun memilih untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya sebagai seorang laki-laki kulit hitam. Sejak kecil hanya bermimpi menjadi pemain basket profesional di NBA, dan berlabuh menjadi politisi papan atas. Sebuah biografi yang tak lazim bagi seorang kandidat presiden Amerika (dimana kecurigaan dan luka akibat politik diskriminasi warna kulit dimasa lalu belum hilang sama sekali), sekaligus biografi yang menginspirasi banyak orang.
Keabu-abuan ini sempat menjadikan Obama sebagai sasaran tembak lawan politiknya, dari tuduhan Obama adalah muslim, Obama tidak lahir di tanah Amerika sampai Obama adalah sosialis. Namun kejelian Obama dalam memanfaatkan biografi dirinya sebagai bukti kehebatan demokrasi di AS (Obama sering mengungkapkan: “apa yang bisa saya capai hanya bisa terjadi di negara ini, tidak di manapun”), kemampuannya memahami keinginan publik serta memformulasikan mantra perubahan dalam cara berpolitik membuatnya bisa mengarungi kerasnya jagat politik di AS. Muncul sebagai kandidat terpilih dari Partai Demokrat dengan terlebih dahulu merontokkan mesin politik kelas kakap milik dinasti Clinton, setelah pertarungan panjang dan melelahkan selama 8 bulan.
Kampanye melawan kandidat Partai Republik, John McCain, jelas bukan hal yang mudah baginya. McCain adalah figur pahlawan AS, seorang veteran perang dari keturunan pembesar Angkatan laut AS (ayah dan kakek McCain adalah admiral), pernah mendekam dipenjara Vietkong dan menerima siksaan komunis Vietnam selama lima tahun. Obama yang relatif jauh lebih muda (47 tahun, Mc Cain 72 tahun) dan minim pengalaman politik (McCain telah menjadi anggota konggres AS sejak 26 tahun lalu). Namun sekali lagi Barack Obama berhasil melalui tantangan didepannya.
Biografi Singkat Barack Obama : Presiden Amerika Serikat ke-44
Proses pemilihan presiden di Amerika adalah sebuah drama politik yang melelahkan, lahir dari sejarah 200-an tahun, dan menjadi “buku panduan” bagi pemilihan presiden negara-negara lainnya. Dan hasilnya, mau tak mau diakui, akan berpengaruh bagi hidup banyak warga bangsa lainnya (antara lain: perang, terorisme, krisis finansial & teknologi yang berasal dari AS ). Namun ada yang membedakan proses tahun ini dibandingkan periode-periode sebelumnya. Tahun ini, pemilihan presiden Amerika Serikat menjadi semakin populer dan ikut diperhatikan oleh banyak orang dari berbagai golongan dan kelas: dari warga anak kecil di Kenya sampai tante-tante di Tegal, dari Hawai sampai Munich . Pemicunya adalah kandidat bernama Barack Obama. Obama bagi banyak golongan adalah simbol sekaligus cermin dan juga fenomena.
Obama adalah manusia abu-abu, lahir dan besar dalam persimpangan budaya yang membuatnya kesulitan mencari jatidiri di awal masa hidupnya. Anak dari seorang Kenya berkulit hitam legam dan ibu Amerika berkulit seputih susu, dibesarkan secara sederhana dalam budaya kulit putih namun memilih untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya sebagai seorang laki-laki kulit hitam. Sejak kecil hanya bermimpi menjadi pemain basket profesional di NBA, dan berlabuh menjadi politisi papan atas. Sebuah biografi yang tak lazim bagi seorang kandidat presiden Amerika (dimana kecurigaan dan luka akibat politik diskriminasi warna kulit dimasa lalu belum hilang sama sekali), sekaligus biografi yang menginspirasi banyak orang.
Keabu-abuan ini sempat menjadikan Obama sebagai sasaran tembak lawan politiknya, dari tuduhan Obama adalah muslim, Obama tidak lahir di tanah Amerika sampai Obama adalah sosialis. Namun kejelian Obama dalam memanfaatkan biografi dirinya sebagai bukti kehebatan demokrasi di AS (Obama sering mengungkapkan: “apa yang bisa saya capai hanya bisa terjadi di negara ini, tidak di manapun”), kemampuannya memahami keinginan publik serta memformulasikan mantra perubahan dalam cara berpolitik membuatnya bisa mengarungi kerasnya jagat politik di AS. Muncul sebagai kandidat terpilih dari Partai Demokrat dengan terlebih dahulu merontokkan mesin politik kelas kakap milik dinasti Clinton, setelah pertarungan panjang dan melelahkan selama 8 bulan.
Kampanye melawan kandidat Partai Republik, John McCain, jelas bukan hal yang mudah baginya. McCain adalah figur pahlawan AS, seorang veteran perang dari keturunan pembesar Angkatan laut AS (ayah dan kakek McCain adalah admiral), pernah mendekam dipenjara Vietkong dan menerima siksaan komunis Vietnam selama lima tahun. Obama yang relatif jauh lebih muda (47 tahun, Mc Cain 72 tahun) dan minim pengalaman politik (McCain telah menjadi anggota konggres AS sejak 26 tahun lalu). Namun sekali lagi Barack Obama berhasil melalui tantangan didepannya.
Pangkalan U.F.O.
[sunting] Pangkalan U.F.O.
Pemerintah dan Akademis Independen A.S. mengatakan Segitiga Bermuda disebabkan karena tempat tersebut merupakan Pangkalan UFO sekelompok mahkluk luar angkasa/alien yang tidak mau diusik oleh manusia, sehingga kendaraan apapun yang melewati teritorial tersebut akan terhisap dan diculik. Ada yang mengatakan bahwa penyebabnya dikarenakan oleh adanya sumber magnet terbesar di bumi yang tertanam di bawah Segitiga Bermuda, sehingga logam berton-tonpun dapat tertarik ke dalam.
Pemerintah dan Akademis Independen A.S. mengatakan Segitiga Bermuda disebabkan karena tempat tersebut merupakan Pangkalan UFO sekelompok mahkluk luar angkasa/alien yang tidak mau diusik oleh manusia, sehingga kendaraan apapun yang melewati teritorial tersebut akan terhisap dan diculik. Ada yang mengatakan bahwa penyebabnya dikarenakan oleh adanya sumber magnet terbesar di bumi yang tertanam di bawah Segitiga Bermuda, sehingga logam berton-tonpun dapat tertarik ke dalam.
Sejarah awal
Sejarah awal
Pada masa pelayaran Christopher Colombus, ketika melintasi area segitiga Bermuda, salah satu awak kapalnya mengatakan melihat “cahaya aneh berkemilau di cakrawala”. Beberapa orang mengatakan telah mengamati sesuatu seperti meteor. Dalam catatannya ia menulis bahwa peralatan navigasi tidak berfungsi dengan baik selama berada di area tersebut.
Berbagai peristiwa kehilangan di area tersebut pertama kali didokumentasikan pada tahun 1951 oleh E.V.W. Jones dari majalah Associated Press. Jones menulis artikel mengenai peristiwa kehilangan misterius yang menimpa kapal terbang dan laut di area tersebut dan menyebutnya ‘Segitiga Setan’. Hal tersebut diungkit kembali pada tahun berikutnya oleh Fate Magazine dengan artikel yang dibuat George X. Tahun 1964, Vincent Geddis menyebut area tersebut sebagai ‘Segitiga Bermuda yang mematikan’, setelah istilah ‘Segitiga Bermuda’ menjadi istilah yang biasa disebut.
Pada masa pelayaran Christopher Colombus, ketika melintasi area segitiga Bermuda, salah satu awak kapalnya mengatakan melihat “cahaya aneh berkemilau di cakrawala”. Beberapa orang mengatakan telah mengamati sesuatu seperti meteor. Dalam catatannya ia menulis bahwa peralatan navigasi tidak berfungsi dengan baik selama berada di area tersebut.
Berbagai peristiwa kehilangan di area tersebut pertama kali didokumentasikan pada tahun 1951 oleh E.V.W. Jones dari majalah Associated Press. Jones menulis artikel mengenai peristiwa kehilangan misterius yang menimpa kapal terbang dan laut di area tersebut dan menyebutnya ‘Segitiga Setan’. Hal tersebut diungkit kembali pada tahun berikutnya oleh Fate Magazine dengan artikel yang dibuat George X. Tahun 1964, Vincent Geddis menyebut area tersebut sebagai ‘Segitiga Bermuda yang mematikan’, setelah istilah ‘Segitiga Bermuda’ menjadi istilah yang biasa disebut.
Tuesday, December 8, 2009
Muslim history
Muslim history
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from History of Islam)
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For the history of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For Islamic civilization, see Islamic civilization. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests. For chronology, see Timeline of Islamic history.
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Allah · Oneness of God
Muhammad · Other prophets
Practices
Profession of faith · Prayer
Fasting · Charity · Pilgrimage
Texts and laws
Qur'an · Sunnah · Hadith
Fiqh · Sharia · Kalam · Sufism
History and leadership
Timeline · Spread of Islam
Ahl al-Bayt · Sahaba
Sunni · Shi'a
Rashidun · Caliphate
Imamate
Culture and society
Academics · Animals · Art
Calendar · Children
Demographics · Festivals
Mosques · Philosophy
Science · Women
Politics · Dawah
Islam and other religions
Christianity · Judaism
Hinduism · Sikhism · Jainism
See also
Criticism · Islamophobia
Glossary of Islamic terms
Islam portal
v • d • e
Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. According to Islamic Faith and the Holy Text, it is wrong to say that the history of Islam began in Arabia with Muslim Prophet Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century, but with Adam and Eve. They are considered the First Apostles of God. Later, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, all taught the same faith as prophets, albeit in different regions or at different points of time.
Like most world religions, the historical evolution of Islam had a significant impact on the political, economic, and military and beyond its primary geographic areas. Islam's historical development has affected both inside and outside the Islamic world. The concept of the Islamic world is useful in observing the different periods of Islamic history; similarly useful is an understanding of the identification with a quasi-political community of believers, or ummah, on the part of Islam's practitioners down the centuries. Islamic culture encourages identification with a quasi-political community of believers or the ummah, and this principle has influenced the behavior of a number of players in history. The history of Islam is closely tied to the political, economic, and military.
A century after the death of Muhammad, an Islamic empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. The subsequent empires of the Umayyads, Abbasids, the Fatimids, the Mughals, the Safavids, and Ottomans were among the largest and most powerful in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and especially, the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
Later, in the eighteenth century and nineteenth century, many Islamic regions fell under the tutelage of European imperial powers. After the First World War, the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parcelled out as European protectorates. Since 1924, there has been no major widely-accepted claim to the caliphate (which had been last claimed by the Ottomans).
Although affected by various ideologies such as communism, during much of the twentieth century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early twenty-first century. The fast-growing Western interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world of the twenty-first century.[1]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from History of Islam)
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For the history of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For Islamic civilization, see Islamic civilization. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests. For chronology, see Timeline of Islamic history.
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Allah · Oneness of God
Muhammad · Other prophets
Practices
Profession of faith · Prayer
Fasting · Charity · Pilgrimage
Texts and laws
Qur'an · Sunnah · Hadith
Fiqh · Sharia · Kalam · Sufism
History and leadership
Timeline · Spread of Islam
Ahl al-Bayt · Sahaba
Sunni · Shi'a
Rashidun · Caliphate
Imamate
Culture and society
Academics · Animals · Art
Calendar · Children
Demographics · Festivals
Mosques · Philosophy
Science · Women
Politics · Dawah
Islam and other religions
Christianity · Judaism
Hinduism · Sikhism · Jainism
See also
Criticism · Islamophobia
Glossary of Islamic terms
Islam portal
v • d • e
Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. According to Islamic Faith and the Holy Text, it is wrong to say that the history of Islam began in Arabia with Muslim Prophet Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century, but with Adam and Eve. They are considered the First Apostles of God. Later, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, all taught the same faith as prophets, albeit in different regions or at different points of time.
Like most world religions, the historical evolution of Islam had a significant impact on the political, economic, and military and beyond its primary geographic areas. Islam's historical development has affected both inside and outside the Islamic world. The concept of the Islamic world is useful in observing the different periods of Islamic history; similarly useful is an understanding of the identification with a quasi-political community of believers, or ummah, on the part of Islam's practitioners down the centuries. Islamic culture encourages identification with a quasi-political community of believers or the ummah, and this principle has influenced the behavior of a number of players in history. The history of Islam is closely tied to the political, economic, and military.
A century after the death of Muhammad, an Islamic empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. The subsequent empires of the Umayyads, Abbasids, the Fatimids, the Mughals, the Safavids, and Ottomans were among the largest and most powerful in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and especially, the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
Later, in the eighteenth century and nineteenth century, many Islamic regions fell under the tutelage of European imperial powers. After the First World War, the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parcelled out as European protectorates. Since 1924, there has been no major widely-accepted claim to the caliphate (which had been last claimed by the Ottomans).
Although affected by various ideologies such as communism, during much of the twentieth century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early twenty-first century. The fast-growing Western interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world of the twenty-first century.[1]
Forcing out SuhartoPro-democracy movement
[edit] Forcing out Suharto
See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998
[edit] Pro-democracy movement
In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on June 20 - 22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.[37]
On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.[38]
See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998
[edit] Pro-democracy movement
In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on June 20 - 22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.[37]
On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.[38]
Forcing out Suharto
[edit] Forcing out Suharto
See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998
[edit] Pro-democracy movement
In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on June 20 - 22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.[37]
On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.[38]
See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998
[edit] Pro-democracy movement
In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.
After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on June 20 - 22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.
Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.[37]
On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.[38]
Saturday, December 5, 2009
Impact of Social and Political
Impact of Social and Political
Changes in weather and ocean can lead to the emergence of diseases associated with heat (heat stroke) and death. Hot temperatures can also cause crop failures that will appear hunger and malnutrition. Changes in extreme weather and increased sea levels due to melting Arctic ice could lead to diseases associated with natural disasters (floods, hurricanes and fires) and deaths due to trauma. The emergence of natural disasters is usually accompanied by the displacement of people into refugee camps places where the disease often occur, such as: diarrhea, malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, psychological trauma, skin diseases, and others.
Shift in the ecosystem can impact on the spread of diseases through water (Waterborne diseases) and the spread of diseases through vectors (vector-borne diseases). Such as increased incidence of Dengue Fever since the emergence of the (ecosystem) of this new breed mosquitoes. With this adamya climate change there is a species of disease vectors (Aedes Agipty eq), viruses, bacteria, plasmodium become more resistant to certain drugs that target these organisms adala it. Also predictable that there are some species that are naturally selected perbuhan or extinct due to this extreme ecosystem. this will also affect climate change (Climat change) the bus to the increase in cases affecting certain diseases such as ARI (drought / forest fires, DHF association with erratic rainy season)
Gradient Environmental pollution caused by waste in the river also contributes to waterborne diseases and vector-borne disease. Coupled with air pollution emissions of gases that are not controlled factory will further contribute to disease, respiratory diseases like asthma, allergies, coccidiodomycosis, heart disease and chronic lung, and others.
Changes in weather and ocean can lead to the emergence of diseases associated with heat (heat stroke) and death. Hot temperatures can also cause crop failures that will appear hunger and malnutrition. Changes in extreme weather and increased sea levels due to melting Arctic ice could lead to diseases associated with natural disasters (floods, hurricanes and fires) and deaths due to trauma. The emergence of natural disasters is usually accompanied by the displacement of people into refugee camps places where the disease often occur, such as: diarrhea, malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, psychological trauma, skin diseases, and others.
Shift in the ecosystem can impact on the spread of diseases through water (Waterborne diseases) and the spread of diseases through vectors (vector-borne diseases). Such as increased incidence of Dengue Fever since the emergence of the (ecosystem) of this new breed mosquitoes. With this adamya climate change there is a species of disease vectors (Aedes Agipty eq), viruses, bacteria, plasmodium become more resistant to certain drugs that target these organisms adala it. Also predictable that there are some species that are naturally selected perbuhan or extinct due to this extreme ecosystem. this will also affect climate change (Climat change) the bus to the increase in cases affecting certain diseases such as ARI (drought / forest fires, DHF association with erratic rainy season)
Gradient Environmental pollution caused by waste in the river also contributes to waterborne diseases and vector-borne disease. Coupled with air pollution emissions of gases that are not controlled factory will further contribute to disease, respiratory diseases like asthma, allergies, coccidiodomycosis, heart disease and chronic lung, and others.
The need for policy interventions in the context of Spatial Anticipating Global Warming Impact on Coastal and Small Islands.
The need for policy interventions in the context of Spatial Anticipating Global Warming Impact on Coastal and Small Islands.
In the framework of spatial planning policy, it is one RTRWN policy instruments that can be used for the impact of global warming on coastal regions and small islands. However, in addition to the preparation RTRWN also pursued a policy of revitalization and operation of spatial planning oriented to the use and control of space utilization of coastal areas and small islands with a depth greater detail.
Of spatial policy interventions basically taken over to meet the following objectives:
Realize sustainable development in coastal areas, including coastal cities with all residents and completeness (infrastructure and facilities) that the functions of regions and cities as a food source (the source of nourishment) can still take place.
Reducing vulnerability (vulnerability) of coastal areas and the settlers (inhabitants) from the threat of sea level rise, floods, abrasion, and the threat of nature (natural hazards) others.
Maintaining ongoing ecological processes essential for life support systems and biodiversity in coastal areas to remain stable which is achieved through the integration of natural resource management from upstream to downstream (integrated coastal zone management).
To support the revitalization effort and achievement operation of spatial planning, the necessary supports, such as: (a) preparation of guidelines and norms, standards, procedures and Manual (NSPM) for the acceleration field of spatial decentralization to the regions - in particular for spatial planning and management coastal resources / edge of the water; (b) improving the quality and quantity of human resources and strengthening institutional mechanisms formats and spatial planning, (c) dissemination of products of spatial to the community through public awareness campaig, (d) preparation of information system support and database management of coastal areas and small islands are adequate, and (e) preparation of maps that can be used as a tool to realize the integration and management of coastal areas, small islands and to avoid cross-border conflicts.
Furthermore, in order to manage coastal development in an efficient and effective, necessary strategies of spatial utilization of the matching with the spirit of regional autonomy developed by considering the following factors:
Integration of cross-sectoral and cross-region in the context of the development of coastal areas so as to create consistency in the management of sector and regional development of spatial plans coastal region.
Bottom-up approach or prioritize the role of community (participatory planning process) in the implementation of coastal development, transparent and accountable, to be more accommodative to various inputs and the aspirations of all stakeholders in the implementation of development.
Cooperation between regions (inter-provincial, district and coastal cities, the urban with rural areas, and between upstream and downstream areas) so as to create synergy development with due regard to coastal initiatives, and potential local benefits, while reducing the potential for conflict across the region
Law enforcement is consistent and consistently - both PP, decree, or law - to avoid one-sided interests and for the implementation of role-sharing is 'balanced' between the elements of the stakeholders.
Various sources.
In the framework of spatial planning policy, it is one RTRWN policy instruments that can be used for the impact of global warming on coastal regions and small islands. However, in addition to the preparation RTRWN also pursued a policy of revitalization and operation of spatial planning oriented to the use and control of space utilization of coastal areas and small islands with a depth greater detail.
Of spatial policy interventions basically taken over to meet the following objectives:
Realize sustainable development in coastal areas, including coastal cities with all residents and completeness (infrastructure and facilities) that the functions of regions and cities as a food source (the source of nourishment) can still take place.
Reducing vulnerability (vulnerability) of coastal areas and the settlers (inhabitants) from the threat of sea level rise, floods, abrasion, and the threat of nature (natural hazards) others.
Maintaining ongoing ecological processes essential for life support systems and biodiversity in coastal areas to remain stable which is achieved through the integration of natural resource management from upstream to downstream (integrated coastal zone management).
To support the revitalization effort and achievement operation of spatial planning, the necessary supports, such as: (a) preparation of guidelines and norms, standards, procedures and Manual (NSPM) for the acceleration field of spatial decentralization to the regions - in particular for spatial planning and management coastal resources / edge of the water; (b) improving the quality and quantity of human resources and strengthening institutional mechanisms formats and spatial planning, (c) dissemination of products of spatial to the community through public awareness campaig, (d) preparation of information system support and database management of coastal areas and small islands are adequate, and (e) preparation of maps that can be used as a tool to realize the integration and management of coastal areas, small islands and to avoid cross-border conflicts.
Furthermore, in order to manage coastal development in an efficient and effective, necessary strategies of spatial utilization of the matching with the spirit of regional autonomy developed by considering the following factors:
Integration of cross-sectoral and cross-region in the context of the development of coastal areas so as to create consistency in the management of sector and regional development of spatial plans coastal region.
Bottom-up approach or prioritize the role of community (participatory planning process) in the implementation of coastal development, transparent and accountable, to be more accommodative to various inputs and the aspirations of all stakeholders in the implementation of development.
Cooperation between regions (inter-provincial, district and coastal cities, the urban with rural areas, and between upstream and downstream areas) so as to create synergy development with due regard to coastal initiatives, and potential local benefits, while reducing the potential for conflict across the region
Law enforcement is consistent and consistently - both PP, decree, or law - to avoid one-sided interests and for the implementation of role-sharing is 'balanced' between the elements of the stakeholders.
Various sources.
Anticipate Increase Front Impact and Flood Sea water through the Plan of National स्पतिअल 2
For protected areas in RTRWN, the policies and criteria for referral management patterns of natural disaster-prone areas, nature reserves, wildlife, conservation, and local protected areas (coastal border, and rivers) should be formulated in order to anticipate the environmental damage that might occur.
Besides the anticipation of strategic macro-above, is also necessary to anticipate the impact of sea level rise and flooding that are micro-operations. At the micro level, the cultivation area development in coastal areas should be done by considering several alternatives recommended by the IPCC (1990) as follows:
Relocation; alternative was developed when the economic and environmental impacts due to sea level rise and flood so great that the cultivation areas have shifted more away from the coastline. In extreme conditions, even, should be considered to avoid at all areas that have very high vulnerability.
Accommodation; this alternative is adjusting to the change of nature or risk the possible impact of such reclamation, enhancement or change in agriculture building into brackish water farming (aquaculture); areas tergenangi inevitable, but is expected not to cause a serious threat to the salvation of souls, assets and socio-economic activities and the environment.
Protection; this alternative has two possibilities, namely that are hard structures such as the construction of wave drag (Breakwater) or flood embankments (seawalls) and which are soft structures such as mangroves or hoarding revegetasi sand (beach nourishment). Although the changes tend to be defensive against nature, this alternative needs to be done carefully keeping in mind the natural processes that occur in accordance with the principle of "working with nature".
As for protected areas, priority should be given to the handling of coastal border, border rivers, mangroves, coral reefs, nature reserves wildlife / nature reserves / habitats of flora, fauna, and areas that are ecologically sensitive or have high vulnerability to natural changes or region problematic. For small islands the protection should be given to the islands that have special functions, such as a transit point of fauna, flora and fauna habitats of rare / protected, hankam interests, and so on.
In order for the principle of integrity management of coastal areas of development can actually be realized, then the conservation of protected areas on the upstream side - in particular tropical forests - should also get attention. This is important so that the rate of global warming can be reduced, while reducing the impact of increased scale in coastal areas in the downstream region.
Besides the anticipation of strategic macro-above, is also necessary to anticipate the impact of sea level rise and flooding that are micro-operations. At the micro level, the cultivation area development in coastal areas should be done by considering several alternatives recommended by the IPCC (1990) as follows:
Relocation; alternative was developed when the economic and environmental impacts due to sea level rise and flood so great that the cultivation areas have shifted more away from the coastline. In extreme conditions, even, should be considered to avoid at all areas that have very high vulnerability.
Accommodation; this alternative is adjusting to the change of nature or risk the possible impact of such reclamation, enhancement or change in agriculture building into brackish water farming (aquaculture); areas tergenangi inevitable, but is expected not to cause a serious threat to the salvation of souls, assets and socio-economic activities and the environment.
Protection; this alternative has two possibilities, namely that are hard structures such as the construction of wave drag (Breakwater) or flood embankments (seawalls) and which are soft structures such as mangroves or hoarding revegetasi sand (beach nourishment). Although the changes tend to be defensive against nature, this alternative needs to be done carefully keeping in mind the natural processes that occur in accordance with the principle of "working with nature".
As for protected areas, priority should be given to the handling of coastal border, border rivers, mangroves, coral reefs, nature reserves wildlife / nature reserves / habitats of flora, fauna, and areas that are ecologically sensitive or have high vulnerability to natural changes or region problematic. For small islands the protection should be given to the islands that have special functions, such as a transit point of fauna, flora and fauna habitats of rare / protected, hankam interests, and so on.
In order for the principle of integrity management of coastal areas of development can actually be realized, then the conservation of protected areas on the upstream side - in particular tropical forests - should also get attention. This is important so that the rate of global warming can be reduced, while reducing the impact of increased scale in coastal areas in the downstream region.
Anticipate Increase Front Impact and Flood Sea water through the Plan of National स्पतिअल 2
For protected areas in RTRWN, the policies and criteria for referral management patterns of natural disaster-prone areas, nature reserves, wildlife, conservation, and local protected areas (coastal border, and rivers) should be formulated in order to anticipate the environmental damage that might occur.
Besides the anticipation of strategic macro-above, is also necessary to anticipate the impact of sea level rise and flooding that are micro-operations. At the micro level, the cultivation area development in coastal areas should be done by considering several alternatives recommended by the IPCC (1990) as follows:
Relocation; alternative was developed when the economic and environmental impacts due to sea level rise and flood so great that the cultivation areas have shifted more away from the coastline. In extreme conditions, even, should be considered to avoid at all areas that have very high vulnerability.
Accommodation; this alternative is adjusting to the change of nature or risk the possible impact of such reclamation, enhancement or change in agriculture building into brackish water farming (aquaculture); areas tergenangi inevitable, but is expected not to cause a serious threat to the salvation of souls, assets and socio-economic activities and the environment.
Protection; this alternative has two possibilities, namely that are hard structures such as the construction of wave drag (Breakwater) or flood embankments (seawalls) and which are soft structures such as mangroves or hoarding revegetasi sand (beach nourishment). Although the changes tend to be defensive against nature, this alternative needs to be done carefully keeping in mind the natural processes that occur in accordance with the principle of "working with nature".
As for protected areas, priority should be given to the handling of coastal border, border rivers, mangroves, coral reefs, nature reserves wildlife / nature reserves / habitats of flora, fauna, and areas that are ecologically sensitive or have high vulnerability to natural changes or region problematic. For small islands the protection should be given to the islands that have special functions, such as a transit point of fauna, flora and fauna habitats of rare / protected, hankam interests, and so on.
In order for the principle of integrity management of coastal areas of development can actually be realized, then the conservation of protected areas on the upstream side - in particular tropical forests - should also get attention. This is important so that the rate of global warming can be reduced, while reducing the impact of increased scale in coastal areas in the downstream region.
Besides the anticipation of strategic macro-above, is also necessary to anticipate the impact of sea level rise and flooding that are micro-operations. At the micro level, the cultivation area development in coastal areas should be done by considering several alternatives recommended by the IPCC (1990) as follows:
Relocation; alternative was developed when the economic and environmental impacts due to sea level rise and flood so great that the cultivation areas have shifted more away from the coastline. In extreme conditions, even, should be considered to avoid at all areas that have very high vulnerability.
Accommodation; this alternative is adjusting to the change of nature or risk the possible impact of such reclamation, enhancement or change in agriculture building into brackish water farming (aquaculture); areas tergenangi inevitable, but is expected not to cause a serious threat to the salvation of souls, assets and socio-economic activities and the environment.
Protection; this alternative has two possibilities, namely that are hard structures such as the construction of wave drag (Breakwater) or flood embankments (seawalls) and which are soft structures such as mangroves or hoarding revegetasi sand (beach nourishment). Although the changes tend to be defensive against nature, this alternative needs to be done carefully keeping in mind the natural processes that occur in accordance with the principle of "working with nature".
As for protected areas, priority should be given to the handling of coastal border, border rivers, mangroves, coral reefs, nature reserves wildlife / nature reserves / habitats of flora, fauna, and areas that are ecologically sensitive or have high vulnerability to natural changes or region problematic. For small islands the protection should be given to the islands that have special functions, such as a transit point of fauna, flora and fauna habitats of rare / protected, hankam interests, and so on.
In order for the principle of integrity management of coastal areas of development can actually be realized, then the conservation of protected areas on the upstream side - in particular tropical forests - should also get attention. This is important so that the rate of global warming can be reduced, while reducing the impact of increased scale in coastal areas in the downstream region.
Anticipate Increase Front Impact and Flood Sea water through the Plan of National Spatial
Anticipate Increase Front Impact and Flood Sea water through the Plan of National Spatial
By observing the impact of global warming which has a national scale and the dimensions of time, long-term, then the existence of RTRWN become very important. RTRWN outlines the aspects of legality established by Regulation No.47/1997 as a manifestation of article 20 of Law No.24/1992 on Spatial Planning policy guidance includes the use of state space that shows the pattern and structure of national territory to be achieved during the will come.
Pattern of utilization of national territorial space include: (a) referral policies and criteria for protected area management (including disaster-prone areas such as areas prone to tidal waves and floods), and (b) referral policies and criteria for the management of cultivated areas (forest production, agriculture, mining, tourism, settlement, etc.). While the structure of national territory space utilization include: (a) referral development of national settlement systems and (b) referral development of a national system of regional infrastructure (such as transportation networks, electricity, water resources, and raw water.
In accordance with the dynamics of development and the strategic environment continues to change, then felt the need to mengkajiulang (review) RTRWN setting material (PP 47/1997) in order to always be able to respond to issues and demands the development of the national territory to the front. (please check the table in Appendix 3). Therefore, at this moment the Government was held mengkajiulang RTRWN with respect to the strategic environment changes or new paradigm as follows:
economic globalization and its implications,
regional autonomy and its implications,
handling of inter-state border region and synchronization,
kemaritiman development / marine resources,
development of the area left for poverty reduction and economic crisis,
hydrological recycling,
handling of land subsidence,
Bible point for the utilization of prosperity and security, as well as
global warming and other effects.
Thus, the aspect of sea level rise and flooding should be one of the significant inputs for policy and national regional development strategy is contained in RTRWN especially for the development of coastal areas to remember: (a) the amount of concentration of population that inhabited the coastal region, especially in cities coastal cities, (b) the amount of economic potential of coastal areas owned, (c) the use of the coastal areas that have not been reflecting the synergy between the economic interests of the environment, (d) high space utilization conflicts across sectors and across regions, and (e) yet the creation of functional linkages between upstream and downstream areas, which tend to harm the coastal region.
Based on studies conducted by ADB (1994), the impact of sea level rise and flooding is expected to give a serious disruption to areas such as: Pantura Java, Sumatra, eastern, southern Kalimantan, Sulawesi Barat Daya, and some spot on Western coast of Papua
For the cultivated area, then greater attention should be given to coastal towns that have a strategic role for the coastal region, namely the central area of growth that provide economic, social, and governance for the region. Coastal cities are expected to experience the threat of sea level rise include the Lhokseumawe, Belawan, Bagansiapi-fire, Batam, Kalianda, Jakarta, Tegal, Semarang, Surabaya, Singkawang, Ketapang, Makassar, Pare-Pare, Sinjai. (Detail please check Table 1 in Appendix).
Functional areas that need attention associated with sea level rise and flooding covers 29 areas mainstay, a particular region 11, and the remaining 19 areas. (learn more please check the table in Appendix 2).
Special attention should be given to the development of policy direction and management of infrastructure criteria are important areas for the development of national economy, but has a vulnerability to the impacts of sea level rise and flooding, such as:
some streets of East Cross Sumatra (from Lhokseumawe to Bandar Lampung along the ± 1600 km) and some Java Pantura Cross road (from Jakarta to Surabaya along the ± 900 km) and most of Central Sulawesi Cross (from Pare-pare, Makassar until Bulukumba along ± 250 km).
several national strategic ports, such as Belawan (Medan), Tanjung Priok (Jakarta), Tanjung Mas (Semarang), Pontianak, Tanjung Perak (Surabaya), and the port of Makassar.
Irrigation network in the area of food centers like Pantura Java, Sumatra and the eastern parts of South Sulawesi.
Some strategic airport in Medan, Jakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, Makassar, and Semarang.
By observing the impact of global warming which has a national scale and the dimensions of time, long-term, then the existence of RTRWN become very important. RTRWN outlines the aspects of legality established by Regulation No.47/1997 as a manifestation of article 20 of Law No.24/1992 on Spatial Planning policy guidance includes the use of state space that shows the pattern and structure of national territory to be achieved during the will come.
Pattern of utilization of national territorial space include: (a) referral policies and criteria for protected area management (including disaster-prone areas such as areas prone to tidal waves and floods), and (b) referral policies and criteria for the management of cultivated areas (forest production, agriculture, mining, tourism, settlement, etc.). While the structure of national territory space utilization include: (a) referral development of national settlement systems and (b) referral development of a national system of regional infrastructure (such as transportation networks, electricity, water resources, and raw water.
In accordance with the dynamics of development and the strategic environment continues to change, then felt the need to mengkajiulang (review) RTRWN setting material (PP 47/1997) in order to always be able to respond to issues and demands the development of the national territory to the front. (please check the table in Appendix 3). Therefore, at this moment the Government was held mengkajiulang RTRWN with respect to the strategic environment changes or new paradigm as follows:
economic globalization and its implications,
regional autonomy and its implications,
handling of inter-state border region and synchronization,
kemaritiman development / marine resources,
development of the area left for poverty reduction and economic crisis,
hydrological recycling,
handling of land subsidence,
Bible point for the utilization of prosperity and security, as well as
global warming and other effects.
Thus, the aspect of sea level rise and flooding should be one of the significant inputs for policy and national regional development strategy is contained in RTRWN especially for the development of coastal areas to remember: (a) the amount of concentration of population that inhabited the coastal region, especially in cities coastal cities, (b) the amount of economic potential of coastal areas owned, (c) the use of the coastal areas that have not been reflecting the synergy between the economic interests of the environment, (d) high space utilization conflicts across sectors and across regions, and (e) yet the creation of functional linkages between upstream and downstream areas, which tend to harm the coastal region.
Based on studies conducted by ADB (1994), the impact of sea level rise and flooding is expected to give a serious disruption to areas such as: Pantura Java, Sumatra, eastern, southern Kalimantan, Sulawesi Barat Daya, and some spot on Western coast of Papua
For the cultivated area, then greater attention should be given to coastal towns that have a strategic role for the coastal region, namely the central area of growth that provide economic, social, and governance for the region. Coastal cities are expected to experience the threat of sea level rise include the Lhokseumawe, Belawan, Bagansiapi-fire, Batam, Kalianda, Jakarta, Tegal, Semarang, Surabaya, Singkawang, Ketapang, Makassar, Pare-Pare, Sinjai. (Detail please check Table 1 in Appendix).
Functional areas that need attention associated with sea level rise and flooding covers 29 areas mainstay, a particular region 11, and the remaining 19 areas. (learn more please check the table in Appendix 2).
Special attention should be given to the development of policy direction and management of infrastructure criteria are important areas for the development of national economy, but has a vulnerability to the impacts of sea level rise and flooding, such as:
some streets of East Cross Sumatra (from Lhokseumawe to Bandar Lampung along the ± 1600 km) and some Java Pantura Cross road (from Jakarta to Surabaya along the ± 900 km) and most of Central Sulawesi Cross (from Pare-pare, Makassar until Bulukumba along ± 250 km).
several national strategic ports, such as Belawan (Medan), Tanjung Priok (Jakarta), Tanjung Mas (Semarang), Pontianak, Tanjung Perak (Surabaya), and the port of Makassar.
Irrigation network in the area of food centers like Pantura Java, Sumatra and the eastern parts of South Sulawesi.
Some strategic airport in Medan, Jakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, Makassar, and Semarang.
The impact of rising sea levels and flooding of Environmental Condition Bio-geophysical and Social-Economic Society.
The impact of rising sea levels and flooding of Environmental Condition Bio-geophysical and Social-Economic Society.
Sea level rise would result in general the following impact: (a) increased frequency and intensity of floods, (b) changes in ocean currents and the widespread destruction of mangrove, (c) expansion of sea water intrusion, (d) a threat to the socio-economic activities of society coastal, and (e) reduction in land area or loss of small islands.
The increased frequency and intensity of floods caused by the random pattern of rainfall and short rainy season while the very high rainfall (extreme events). Another possibility is due to backwater effects from coastal to inland areas. The frequency and intensity of flooding is predicted occurs 9 times greater in the next decade where the 80% increase in flooding occurred in South and Southeast Asia (including Indonesia) with an area of the floodwaters reached 2 million square miles. Increasing the volume of water in coastal areas will provide an accumulative effect when the sea level rise and increased frequency and intensity of rain occurred in the same period.
Sea level rise in addition to resulting changes in ocean currents in coastal areas also cause damage to the mangrove ecosystem, which currently only condition is very worrying. Extensive mangrove forests in Indonesia continued to decline from 5,209,543 ha (1982) decreased to 3,235,700 ha (1987) and decreased again to 2,496,185 ha (1993). In a 10-year period (1982-1993), has been a decline in the mangrove forest ± 50% of the total area of the original. If the existence of mangrove untenable, then: coastal abrasion will often occur because there was no wave drag, the pollution of the river to the sea will rise because there was no filter pollutants, and aquaculture farming zones would be threatened by itself.
Spread of sea water intrusion caused by the occurrence of other than sea level rise was also triggered by the occurrence of land subsidence due to ground water exploitation excessive. For example, estimated in the period between 2050 until 2070, then the sea water intrusion will cover 50% of the total area of North Jakarta.
Disruption of socio-economic conditions of society that occurred among others: (a) the disruption of road networks and railway traffic in Pantura East Java and South Sumatra; (b) a pool of settlements in the coastal cities that are in the area of Java Pantura , eastern Sumatra, southern Kalimantan, Sulawesi Barat Daya, and some coastal spots in Papua; (c) loss of cultivated land such as rice fields, brackish fish ponds, and mangrove area of 3.4 million hectares, equivalent to U.S. $ 11.307 million; this picture becomes even more 'blurred' when linked to the existence of centers of food production is only range from only 4% of the total national area, and (d) decrease in land productivity in food centers, such as in the Citarum river basin, Brantas, and Saddang very crucial for the survival of food self-sufficiency in Indonesia. The areas of Indonesia affected by the potential rise in sea level are shown in Figure 1 below.
Threatened coastal area reduction and even the loss of small islands that can reach the number 2000 to 4000 the island, depending on sea level rise that occurred. Assuming the shoreline setback as far as 25 meters, at the end of 2100 century coastal land loss reached 202,500 ha.
For Indonesia, the impact of sea level rise and flooding is more exacerbated by the tropical forest reduction significant, either by fire or by defoliation. Data collected from the Georgetown - International Environmental Law Review (1999) showed that in the period 1997 to 1998 is not less than 1.7 million hectares of forest burning in Sumatra and Kalimantan, due to the influence of El Nino. Even WWF (2000) mention the larger number, ie between 2 to 3.5 million hectares in the same period. If not taken steps to correct the damage to forests - especially those that serve conservation - will cause a run-off upstream of the region, increasing the risk of flooding in pendangkalan and downstream areas, and expand the water scarcity in the long run.
Sea level rise would result in general the following impact: (a) increased frequency and intensity of floods, (b) changes in ocean currents and the widespread destruction of mangrove, (c) expansion of sea water intrusion, (d) a threat to the socio-economic activities of society coastal, and (e) reduction in land area or loss of small islands.
The increased frequency and intensity of floods caused by the random pattern of rainfall and short rainy season while the very high rainfall (extreme events). Another possibility is due to backwater effects from coastal to inland areas. The frequency and intensity of flooding is predicted occurs 9 times greater in the next decade where the 80% increase in flooding occurred in South and Southeast Asia (including Indonesia) with an area of the floodwaters reached 2 million square miles. Increasing the volume of water in coastal areas will provide an accumulative effect when the sea level rise and increased frequency and intensity of rain occurred in the same period.
Sea level rise in addition to resulting changes in ocean currents in coastal areas also cause damage to the mangrove ecosystem, which currently only condition is very worrying. Extensive mangrove forests in Indonesia continued to decline from 5,209,543 ha (1982) decreased to 3,235,700 ha (1987) and decreased again to 2,496,185 ha (1993). In a 10-year period (1982-1993), has been a decline in the mangrove forest ± 50% of the total area of the original. If the existence of mangrove untenable, then: coastal abrasion will often occur because there was no wave drag, the pollution of the river to the sea will rise because there was no filter pollutants, and aquaculture farming zones would be threatened by itself.
Spread of sea water intrusion caused by the occurrence of other than sea level rise was also triggered by the occurrence of land subsidence due to ground water exploitation excessive. For example, estimated in the period between 2050 until 2070, then the sea water intrusion will cover 50% of the total area of North Jakarta.
Disruption of socio-economic conditions of society that occurred among others: (a) the disruption of road networks and railway traffic in Pantura East Java and South Sumatra; (b) a pool of settlements in the coastal cities that are in the area of Java Pantura , eastern Sumatra, southern Kalimantan, Sulawesi Barat Daya, and some coastal spots in Papua; (c) loss of cultivated land such as rice fields, brackish fish ponds, and mangrove area of 3.4 million hectares, equivalent to U.S. $ 11.307 million; this picture becomes even more 'blurred' when linked to the existence of centers of food production is only range from only 4% of the total national area, and (d) decrease in land productivity in food centers, such as in the Citarum river basin, Brantas, and Saddang very crucial for the survival of food self-sufficiency in Indonesia. The areas of Indonesia affected by the potential rise in sea level are shown in Figure 1 below.
Threatened coastal area reduction and even the loss of small islands that can reach the number 2000 to 4000 the island, depending on sea level rise that occurred. Assuming the shoreline setback as far as 25 meters, at the end of 2100 century coastal land loss reached 202,500 ha.
For Indonesia, the impact of sea level rise and flooding is more exacerbated by the tropical forest reduction significant, either by fire or by defoliation. Data collected from the Georgetown - International Environmental Law Review (1999) showed that in the period 1997 to 1998 is not less than 1.7 million hectares of forest burning in Sumatra and Kalimantan, due to the influence of El Nino. Even WWF (2000) mention the larger number, ie between 2 to 3.5 million hectares in the same period. If not taken steps to correct the damage to forests - especially those that serve conservation - will cause a run-off upstream of the region, increasing the risk of flooding in pendangkalan and downstream areas, and expand the water scarcity in the long run.
Global Warming
Global Warming
admin on October 2, 2007
Global warming (global warming) is essentially a phenomenon of global temperature increases from year to year because of the greenhouse effect (greenhouse effect) caused by increased emissions of gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), dinitrooksida (N2O) and CFCs so that solar energy trapped in the earth's atmosphere. The literature shows an increase in global temperatures - including Indonesia - which occurred in the range 1,5-40 Celsius in the late 21st century.
Global warming impact caused extensive and serious for the bio-geophysical environment (such as melting polar ice caps, sea level rise, expanding deserts, increasing rainfall and floods, climate change, extinction of certain flora and fauna, the migration of fauna and pest and disease, etc. ). While the impact on the socio-economic activities of the community include: (a) disruption of the function of coastal areas and coastal cities, (b) disruption of the function of infrastructure and facilities such as road networks, ports and airports (c) disruption of residential areas, (d) reduction productivity of agricultural land, (e) increased risk of cancer and disease, etc.). In this paper, focus is given to the anticipation of the two effects of global warming, namely sea level rise (sea-level rise) and the flood.
admin on October 2, 2007
Global warming (global warming) is essentially a phenomenon of global temperature increases from year to year because of the greenhouse effect (greenhouse effect) caused by increased emissions of gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), dinitrooksida (N2O) and CFCs so that solar energy trapped in the earth's atmosphere. The literature shows an increase in global temperatures - including Indonesia - which occurred in the range 1,5-40 Celsius in the late 21st century.
Global warming impact caused extensive and serious for the bio-geophysical environment (such as melting polar ice caps, sea level rise, expanding deserts, increasing rainfall and floods, climate change, extinction of certain flora and fauna, the migration of fauna and pest and disease, etc. ). While the impact on the socio-economic activities of the community include: (a) disruption of the function of coastal areas and coastal cities, (b) disruption of the function of infrastructure and facilities such as road networks, ports and airports (c) disruption of residential areas, (d) reduction productivity of agricultural land, (e) increased risk of cancer and disease, etc.). In this paper, focus is given to the anticipation of the two effects of global warming, namely sea level rise (sea-level rise) and the flood.
Tuesday, December 1, 2009
Ecological Disturbance
Ecological Disturbance
Animals and plants are living creatures that are difficult to avoid the effects of warming because most of the land has been controlled by humans. In global warming, animals tend to migrate toward the poles or to the mountains. Plants will change the direction of growth, seeking new areas as old habitats grow too warm. However, human development will prevent this movement. The species that migrate to the north or south is blocked by the cities or agricultural lands may be dead. Some types of species that are not capable of quickly moving toward the poles may disappear.
Animals and plants are living creatures that are difficult to avoid the effects of warming because most of the land has been controlled by humans. In global warming, animals tend to migrate toward the poles or to the mountains. Plants will change the direction of growth, seeking new areas as old habitats grow too warm. However, human development will prevent this movement. The species that migrate to the north or south is blocked by the cities or agricultural lands may be dead. Some types of species that are not capable of quickly moving toward the poles may disappear.
Tend Global Temperature Rise
Tend Global Temperature Rise
One might assume that a warmer Earth would produce more food than ever before, but this is not the same in some places. Southern Canada, for example, may benefit from more rainfall and longer growing season. On the other hand, semi-tropical agricultural land dry in some parts of Africa may not be able to grow. Desert agricultural areas that use irrigation water from the mountains far may suffer if the snowpack (snow collection) winter, which serves as a natural reservoir, melts before the peak months of planting. Crops and forests may experience insect and disease attacks more powerful.
One might assume that a warmer Earth would produce more food than ever before, but this is not the same in some places. Southern Canada, for example, may benefit from more rainfall and longer growing season. On the other hand, semi-tropical agricultural land dry in some parts of Africa may not be able to grow. Desert agricultural areas that use irrigation water from the mountains far may suffer if the snowpack (snow collection) winter, which serves as a natural reservoir, melts before the peak months of planting. Crops and forests may experience insect and disease attacks more powerful.
Monday, November 30, 2009
Improving the Sea Surface
Improving the Sea Surface
Changes of average height measured from sea-level areas with a stable environment in geologi.Ketika atmosphere warms, the ocean surface layer will be warmer, so the volume will grow and raise the sea level. Warming will also melt much glacier ice, especially around Greenland, further swelling the sea. Sea levels worldwide rose 10 - 25 cm (4 - 10 inches) during the 20th century, and IPCC scientists predict a further rise of 9 to 88 cm (4 to 35 inches) in the 21st century.
Sea-level changes will complicate life in the coastal region. Increase of 100 cm (40 inches) will submerge 6 percent of The Netherlands, 17.5 percent of Bangladesh, and many islands. Erosion of cliffs, beaches, and dunes will increase. When the high seas to reach the mouth of the river, flooding caused by high water will rise on the mainland. Rich countries will spend huge amounts of money to protect the shorelines, while poor countries may simply evacuate from coastal areas.
Even a modest rise in sea level will greatly change coastal ecosystems. Increase of 50 cm (20 inches) will submerge about half of coastal wetlands in the United States. New marshes will form in, but not in urban areas and regions that have been built. This sea-level rise will cover much of the Florida Everglades.
Changes of average height measured from sea-level areas with a stable environment in geologi.Ketika atmosphere warms, the ocean surface layer will be warmer, so the volume will grow and raise the sea level. Warming will also melt much glacier ice, especially around Greenland, further swelling the sea. Sea levels worldwide rose 10 - 25 cm (4 - 10 inches) during the 20th century, and IPCC scientists predict a further rise of 9 to 88 cm (4 to 35 inches) in the 21st century.
Sea-level changes will complicate life in the coastal region. Increase of 100 cm (40 inches) will submerge 6 percent of The Netherlands, 17.5 percent of Bangladesh, and many islands. Erosion of cliffs, beaches, and dunes will increase. When the high seas to reach the mouth of the river, flooding caused by high water will rise on the mainland. Rich countries will spend huge amounts of money to protect the shorelines, while poor countries may simply evacuate from coastal areas.
Even a modest rise in sea level will greatly change coastal ecosystems. Increase of 50 cm (20 inches) will submerge about half of coastal wetlands in the United States. New marshes will form in, but not in urban areas and regions that have been built. This sea-level rise will cover much of the Florida Everglades.
Wednesday, November 25, 2009
Climate Start Unstable
Scientists use computer models of temperature, precipitation patterns, and atmosphere circulation to study global warming. Based on these models, scientists have made several predictions about the impact of global warming on weather, sea levels, coastal, agricultural, wildlife and human health.
[edit] Climate Start Unstable
Scientists predict that during global warming, the northern part of the Northern hemisphere (Northern Hemisphere) will heat up more than other regions on Earth. As a result, icebergs will melt and the land will shrink. Will be less ice will float on northern oceans. Areas that previously experienced light snow, may not be there again. In the mountains in subtropical areas, snow-covered parts will be less and will melt faster. Growing seasons will be longer in some areas. Temperatures in the winter and at night would tend to increase.
Warmer regions will become more humid as more water evaporates from the oceans. Scientists are not sure whether the moisture is actually going to increase or decrease heating further. This is because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, so that its presence will increase the insulation effect on the atmosphere. However, the more water vapor will also develop a lot more clouds, which would reflect sunlight back into space, where it will reduce the heating process (see the water cycle). High humidity will increase rainfall, on average, about 1 percent for each Fahrenheit degree of warming. (Rainfall in the world has increased by 1 percent in the last hundred years) [29]. The storm will become more frequent. In addition, the water will evaporate faster than the ground. Some regions will become drier than before. Winds will blow harder and perhaps with a different pattern. Hurricane (hurricane) that obtain power from the evaporation of water, will become larger. Contrary to the warming is happening, some very cold periods will probably happen. Weather patterns become more unpredictable and extreme.
[edit] Climate Start Unstable
Scientists predict that during global warming, the northern part of the Northern hemisphere (Northern Hemisphere) will heat up more than other regions on Earth. As a result, icebergs will melt and the land will shrink. Will be less ice will float on northern oceans. Areas that previously experienced light snow, may not be there again. In the mountains in subtropical areas, snow-covered parts will be less and will melt faster. Growing seasons will be longer in some areas. Temperatures in the winter and at night would tend to increase.
Warmer regions will become more humid as more water evaporates from the oceans. Scientists are not sure whether the moisture is actually going to increase or decrease heating further. This is because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, so that its presence will increase the insulation effect on the atmosphere. However, the more water vapor will also develop a lot more clouds, which would reflect sunlight back into space, where it will reduce the heating process (see the water cycle). High humidity will increase rainfall, on average, about 1 percent for each Fahrenheit degree of warming. (Rainfall in the world has increased by 1 percent in the last hundred years) [29]. The storm will become more frequent. In addition, the water will evaporate faster than the ground. Some regions will become drier than before. Winds will blow harder and perhaps with a different pattern. Hurricane (hurricane) that obtain power from the evaporation of water, will become larger. Contrary to the warming is happening, some very cold periods will probably happen. Weather patterns become more unpredictable and extreme.
Friday, November 20, 2009
Climate models
Climate models
Forecast increase in temperature of several scenarios stability (colored ribbons) based on the report to the Fourth IPCC view. Black line shows the best forecasting; red and blue lines show the limits of possibility that can happen.
Calculation of global warming in 2001 from several climate models based on the SRES A2 scenario, which assumes no action is taken to reduce the main emisi.Artikel for this section are: global climate model
Scientists have studied global warming based on computer models based on the basic principles of fluid dinamikan, radiation transfer, and other processes, with some simplifications due to the limited computer capabilities. These models predict that the addition of gases to the greenhouse effect and warmer climate. [23] Although the assumptions used are similar to the concentration of greenhouse gases in the future, the climate sensitivity would still be in a certain range.
By inserting the elements of uncertainty to the concentration of greenhouse gases and climate modeling, the IPCC estimates that warming of about 1.1 ° C to 6.4 ° C (2.0 ° F to 11.5 ° F) between 1990 and 2100. [1] climate models are also used to investigate the causes of climate change is happening right now by comparing the observed changes with the results of the model predictions to various causes, both natural and human activities.
Current climate models produce a fairly good resemblance with the global temperature changes observed during the last hundred years, but did not simulate all aspects of the climate. [24] These models are not exactly state that the warming occurred between 1910 and 1945 caused by natural processes or human activities; but they show that the warming since 1975 is dominated by the emission of gases that humans produce.
Most climate models, when calculating the future climate, based on scenarios of greenhouse gases, usually from the Special Report on Emission Scenarios (Special Report on Emissions Scenarios / SRES) IPCC. Which is rarely done, the model calculated by adding a simulation of the carbon cycle; that usually produces positive feedback, although the response is uncertain (for the A2 SRES scenario, responses vary between 20 and addition of 200 ppm CO2). Several studies also show some positive feedback. [25] [26] [27]
The influence of clouds is also one source of uncertainty to the models produced today, although now there has been progress in resolving this issue. [28] We also occur the discussions were still ongoing as to whether climate models exclude the effects of feedback and not directly from the variation of the Sun.
Forecast increase in temperature of several scenarios stability (colored ribbons) based on the report to the Fourth IPCC view. Black line shows the best forecasting; red and blue lines show the limits of possibility that can happen.
Calculation of global warming in 2001 from several climate models based on the SRES A2 scenario, which assumes no action is taken to reduce the main emisi.Artikel for this section are: global climate model
Scientists have studied global warming based on computer models based on the basic principles of fluid dinamikan, radiation transfer, and other processes, with some simplifications due to the limited computer capabilities. These models predict that the addition of gases to the greenhouse effect and warmer climate. [23] Although the assumptions used are similar to the concentration of greenhouse gases in the future, the climate sensitivity would still be in a certain range.
By inserting the elements of uncertainty to the concentration of greenhouse gases and climate modeling, the IPCC estimates that warming of about 1.1 ° C to 6.4 ° C (2.0 ° F to 11.5 ° F) between 1990 and 2100. [1] climate models are also used to investigate the causes of climate change is happening right now by comparing the observed changes with the results of the model predictions to various causes, both natural and human activities.
Current climate models produce a fairly good resemblance with the global temperature changes observed during the last hundred years, but did not simulate all aspects of the climate. [24] These models are not exactly state that the warming occurred between 1910 and 1945 caused by natural processes or human activities; but they show that the warming since 1975 is dominated by the emission of gases that humans produce.
Most climate models, when calculating the future climate, based on scenarios of greenhouse gases, usually from the Special Report on Emission Scenarios (Special Report on Emissions Scenarios / SRES) IPCC. Which is rarely done, the model calculated by adding a simulation of the carbon cycle; that usually produces positive feedback, although the response is uncertain (for the A2 SRES scenario, responses vary between 20 and addition of 200 ppm CO2). Several studies also show some positive feedback. [25] [26] [27]
The influence of clouds is also one source of uncertainty to the models produced today, although now there has been progress in resolving this issue. [28] We also occur the discussions were still ongoing as to whether climate models exclude the effects of feedback and not directly from the variation of the Sun.
Sunday, November 15, 2009
Measuring global warming
Measuring global warming
CO2 concentrations measured at Mauna LoaPada early 1896, scientists suggested that burning fossil fuels will change the composition of the atmosphere and temperature can increase the global average. This hypothesis was confirmed in 1957 when the researchers who worked on the global research program called the International Geophysical Year sampled the atmosphere from the top of Mauna Loa mountain in Hawaii.
Measurement results showed an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. After that, the composition of the atmosphere has been carefully tracked. The data collected show that there have been increasing the concentration of the gas-greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Scientists also have long suspected that the global climate warms, but they are not able to provide evidence of the right. Temperatures vary widely from time to time and from one location to another location. It takes many years of climate observations to obtain data that showed a tendency (trend) is clear. Note in the late 1980s seem to show a warming trend, but statistics are few and can not be trusted.
Weather station was originally located near urban areas where temperature measurements were affected by the heat emitted from buildings and vehicles and the heat stored by building materials and roads. Since 1957, the data obtained from a reliable weather station (located far from urban areas), and from satellites. These data provide a more accurate measurement, especially at 70 percent of the planet's surface is covered with oceans. Data that more accurately shows that the surface warming trend really happened. If seen in the late 20th century, noted that the ten warmest years over the last hundred years occurred after 1980, and the three hottest years occurred after 1990, with 1998 being the warmest.
In a report issued in 2001, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that global air temperature has risen 0.6 degrees Celsius (1 degree Fahrenheit) since 1861. The panel agreed that the warming was caused primarily by human activities that add to the gas-greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The IPCC predicts a temperature increase in global average will rise 1.1 to 6.4 ° C (2.0 to 11.5 ° F) between 1990 and 2100.
The IPCC panel cautioned that even if greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere has not increased since the year 2100, climate would continue to warm for a certain period of emissions that have been released previously. carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for a hundred years or more before nature can dispose of it. [22]
If emissions of greenhouse gases continue to increase, experts predict that carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere can be increased up to three times in the early 22 th century when compared to pre-industrial era. As a result, there will be dramatic climate change. Although the actual events of climate change has occurred several times throughout the history of Earth, humans will face this problem with the risk of a very large population.
CO2 concentrations measured at Mauna LoaPada early 1896, scientists suggested that burning fossil fuels will change the composition of the atmosphere and temperature can increase the global average. This hypothesis was confirmed in 1957 when the researchers who worked on the global research program called the International Geophysical Year sampled the atmosphere from the top of Mauna Loa mountain in Hawaii.
Measurement results showed an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. After that, the composition of the atmosphere has been carefully tracked. The data collected show that there have been increasing the concentration of the gas-greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Scientists also have long suspected that the global climate warms, but they are not able to provide evidence of the right. Temperatures vary widely from time to time and from one location to another location. It takes many years of climate observations to obtain data that showed a tendency (trend) is clear. Note in the late 1980s seem to show a warming trend, but statistics are few and can not be trusted.
Weather station was originally located near urban areas where temperature measurements were affected by the heat emitted from buildings and vehicles and the heat stored by building materials and roads. Since 1957, the data obtained from a reliable weather station (located far from urban areas), and from satellites. These data provide a more accurate measurement, especially at 70 percent of the planet's surface is covered with oceans. Data that more accurately shows that the surface warming trend really happened. If seen in the late 20th century, noted that the ten warmest years over the last hundred years occurred after 1980, and the three hottest years occurred after 1990, with 1998 being the warmest.
In a report issued in 2001, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that global air temperature has risen 0.6 degrees Celsius (1 degree Fahrenheit) since 1861. The panel agreed that the warming was caused primarily by human activities that add to the gas-greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The IPCC predicts a temperature increase in global average will rise 1.1 to 6.4 ° C (2.0 to 11.5 ° F) between 1990 and 2100.
The IPCC panel cautioned that even if greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere has not increased since the year 2100, climate would continue to warm for a certain period of emissions that have been released previously. carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for a hundred years or more before nature can dispose of it. [22]
If emissions of greenhouse gases continue to increase, experts predict that carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere can be increased up to three times in the early 22 th century when compared to pre-industrial era. As a result, there will be dramatic climate change. Although the actual events of climate change has occurred several times throughout the history of Earth, humans will face this problem with the risk of a very large population.
Revolutionary War
Revolutionary War
The living room is a safe house at the Bung Karno Rengasdengklok.Soekarno with national figures began to prepare themselves before the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Indonesia. After hearing the Investigating Committee of Indonesian Independence Preparation Business BPUPKI, subcommittee consisting of eight people (official), subcommittee consisting of nine persons per committee Nine (which produces the Jakarta Charter) and the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence PPKI, Soekarno-Hatta Indonesia State founded based on Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution.
After seeing Marshal Terauchi in Dalat, Vietnam, there Rengasdengklok event on August 16, 1945; Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta were persuaded by the youth to get away to boarding homeland defense forces Rengasdengklok Map. Youth leaders who persuaded the others Soekarni, Wikana, Singgih and Chairul Saleh. The youths demanded that Sukarno and Hatta declared independence soon the Republic of Indonesia, because Indonesia's power vacuum there. This is because Japan had surrendered and Allied troops had not arrived. But Sukarno, Hatta and the leaders refused to wait for clarity about the reasons for Japan's surrender. Another reason is the Soekarno developing appropriate moment to establish the independence of the Republic of Indonesia which is chosen on 17 August 1945 when it coincided with Ramadan, the Muslim holy month that is believed to be in the first revelation of the Muslims to the Prophet Muhammad's Qur'an. On August 18, 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta PPKI be appointed by the President and Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia. On August 29, 1945 appointment as president and vice president confirmed by KNIP.Pada on 19 September 1945 the authority to resolve the Soekarno bloodless field event in which 200,000 people Ikada Jakarta will clash with Japanese troops who were armed to the teeth.
At the time of arrival of the Allies (AFNEI) led by Lieutenant General. Sir Philip Christison, Christison finally recognize the sovereignty of Indonesia as a de facto after meeting with President Sukarno. President Sukarno was also trying to resolve the crisis in Surabaya. However, due to forces launched provocation NICA (Netherlands) who ride the Allies. (under UK) burst event 10 November 1945 in Surabaya and the death of Brigadier General AWS Mallaby.
Since many provocations in Jakarta at the time, President Soekarno eventually move the capital city of Indonesia from Jakarta to Yogyakarta. Followed by vice president and high officials of other countries.
The position of President Sukarno by the 1945 Constitution is the position of president as head of government and head of state (presidential / single executive). During the revolution of independence, the system of government into executive semi-presidensiil/double. President Sukarno as head of state and Sutan Syahrir as Prime Minister / Head of Government. It happened because of the vice presidential decree No X, and the government decree in November 1945 about the political parties. This is taken to the Republic of Indonesia is considered a more democratic country.
Although the system of government changed, at the time of the revolution for independence, the position of President remains the most important, especially in the face of the Madiun affair during 1948 and the Dutch military aggression II that led to President Soekarno, Vice-President Mohammad Hatta and a number of high state officials arrested the Netherlands. Despite the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (Emergency Government) with the head Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, but in reality the international and domestic situation continued to recognize that the Soekarno-Hatta Indonesia is a real leader, only policies that could solve the Indonesian-Dutch dispute.
The living room is a safe house at the Bung Karno Rengasdengklok.Soekarno with national figures began to prepare themselves before the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Indonesia. After hearing the Investigating Committee of Indonesian Independence Preparation Business BPUPKI, subcommittee consisting of eight people (official), subcommittee consisting of nine persons per committee Nine (which produces the Jakarta Charter) and the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence PPKI, Soekarno-Hatta Indonesia State founded based on Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution.
After seeing Marshal Terauchi in Dalat, Vietnam, there Rengasdengklok event on August 16, 1945; Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta were persuaded by the youth to get away to boarding homeland defense forces Rengasdengklok Map. Youth leaders who persuaded the others Soekarni, Wikana, Singgih and Chairul Saleh. The youths demanded that Sukarno and Hatta declared independence soon the Republic of Indonesia, because Indonesia's power vacuum there. This is because Japan had surrendered and Allied troops had not arrived. But Sukarno, Hatta and the leaders refused to wait for clarity about the reasons for Japan's surrender. Another reason is the Soekarno developing appropriate moment to establish the independence of the Republic of Indonesia which is chosen on 17 August 1945 when it coincided with Ramadan, the Muslim holy month that is believed to be in the first revelation of the Muslims to the Prophet Muhammad's Qur'an. On August 18, 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta PPKI be appointed by the President and Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia. On August 29, 1945 appointment as president and vice president confirmed by KNIP.Pada on 19 September 1945 the authority to resolve the Soekarno bloodless field event in which 200,000 people Ikada Jakarta will clash with Japanese troops who were armed to the teeth.
At the time of arrival of the Allies (AFNEI) led by Lieutenant General. Sir Philip Christison, Christison finally recognize the sovereignty of Indonesia as a de facto after meeting with President Sukarno. President Sukarno was also trying to resolve the crisis in Surabaya. However, due to forces launched provocation NICA (Netherlands) who ride the Allies. (under UK) burst event 10 November 1945 in Surabaya and the death of Brigadier General AWS Mallaby.
Since many provocations in Jakarta at the time, President Soekarno eventually move the capital city of Indonesia from Jakarta to Yogyakarta. Followed by vice president and high officials of other countries.
The position of President Sukarno by the 1945 Constitution is the position of president as head of government and head of state (presidential / single executive). During the revolution of independence, the system of government into executive semi-presidensiil/double. President Sukarno as head of state and Sutan Syahrir as Prime Minister / Head of Government. It happened because of the vice presidential decree No X, and the government decree in November 1945 about the political parties. This is taken to the Republic of Indonesia is considered a more democratic country.
Although the system of government changed, at the time of the revolution for independence, the position of President remains the most important, especially in the face of the Madiun affair during 1948 and the Dutch military aggression II that led to President Soekarno, Vice-President Mohammad Hatta and a number of high state officials arrested the Netherlands. Despite the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (Emergency Government) with the head Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, but in reality the international and domestic situation continued to recognize that the Soekarno-Hatta Indonesia is a real leader, only policies that could solve the Indonesian-Dutch dispute.
Tuesday, November 10, 2009
The greenhouse effect
The cause of global warming
[edit] The greenhouse effect
Any source of energy contained in the Earth comes from the sun. Most of the energy in the form of short-wave radiation, including visible light. When it reached the surface energy of the Earth, he changed from light into heat that warms the Earth. Earth's surface, will absorb some heat and reflecting back the rest. Some of this heat radiation form of long wave infrared to space. However, some heat remains trapped in the Earth's atmosphere due to accumulated amount of greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane which trap the waves of this radiation. These gases absorb and reflect radiation waves emitted heat the Earth and consequently will be stored in the Earth's surface. This occurs continuously resulting in an average temperature of the earth continues to increase yearly.
These gases working in greenhouse gases. With the increasing concentration of these gases in the atmosphere, the more heat is trapped below.
This greenhouse effect is needed by all living things on earth, because without it, this planet will become very cold. With an average temperature of 15 ° C (59 ° F), the earth actually has more hot 33 ° C (59 ° F) from the original temperature, if there is no greenhouse effect the earth temperature is only -18 ° C and ice would cover the entire Earth's surface. On the other hand, if these gases in the atmosphere has been excessive, will cause global warming.
[edit] The greenhouse effect
Any source of energy contained in the Earth comes from the sun. Most of the energy in the form of short-wave radiation, including visible light. When it reached the surface energy of the Earth, he changed from light into heat that warms the Earth. Earth's surface, will absorb some heat and reflecting back the rest. Some of this heat radiation form of long wave infrared to space. However, some heat remains trapped in the Earth's atmosphere due to accumulated amount of greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane which trap the waves of this radiation. These gases absorb and reflect radiation waves emitted heat the Earth and consequently will be stored in the Earth's surface. This occurs continuously resulting in an average temperature of the earth continues to increase yearly.
These gases working in greenhouse gases. With the increasing concentration of these gases in the atmosphere, the more heat is trapped below.
This greenhouse effect is needed by all living things on earth, because without it, this planet will become very cold. With an average temperature of 15 ° C (59 ° F), the earth actually has more hot 33 ° C (59 ° F) from the original temperature, if there is no greenhouse effect the earth temperature is only -18 ° C and ice would cover the entire Earth's surface. On the other hand, if these gases in the atmosphere has been excessive, will cause global warming.
Thursday, November 5, 2009
Effects of feedback
[edit] Effects of feedback
Elements of the cause of global warming is also influenced by various feedback processes that result. An example is the evaporation of water. In the case of gas heating due to increasing greenhouse-gases such as CO2, warming will initially lead to more number of water evaporating into the atmosphere. Because water vapor is itself a greenhouse gas, warming will continue and increase the amount of water vapor in the air until the achievement of an equilibrium concentration of water vapor. Greenhouse effect produced greater than the effect of CO2 alone. (Although this feedback increases the absolute water content in the air, the air relative humidity is almost constant or even slightly decreased because the air becomes warmer). [3] This feedback effect is only slowly because CO2 has a long age in the atmosphere.
Feedback effect due to the influence of clouds is the object of current research. When viewed from below, clouds will reflect infrared radiation back to the surface, thereby increasing the heating effect. In contrast when viewed from above, these clouds will reflect sunlight and infrared radiation into space, thereby increasing the cooling effect. Is it the net effect of producing heating or cooling depending on some specific details such as the type and height of the cloud. The details are difficult to be represented in climate models, partly because the cloud is very small compared with the distance between computational limits of climate models (about 125 to 500 km for the model used in the IPCC report to view Four). Nevertheless, cloud feedback ranked second when compared with the water vapor feedback and is considered a positive (warming increase) in all models used in the IPCC report into the Four Views. [3]
Another important feedback is the loss of ability to reflect light (Albedo) by the ice. [4] As global temperatures increase, ice near the poles to melt with increasing speed. Along with the melting of the ice, land or water below it will open. Both land and water have the ability to reflect light much less when compared with the ice, and consequently will absorb more sun radiation. This will increase the warming and cause more ice to melt, into a continuous cycle.
Positive feedback due to release of CO2 and CH4 from the softening of frozen soil (permafrost) are other mechanisms that contribute to warming. In addition, the melting ice will also release CH4 is also causing a positive feedback.
Ocean's ability to absorb carbon will also be reduced if it warms, it menurunya caused by nutrient levels in the mesopelagic zone of limiting the growth of diatoms than the phytoplankton, which is a low carbon sinks. [5]
[edit] Solar variation
Solar variation over 30 years terakhir.Artikel Main is: Variations Sun
There is a hypothesis which states that the variation of the Sun, with a possibility reinforced by feedback from clouds, can contribute in the current warming. [6] The difference between this mechanism with the warming due to greenhouse effect is the increased activity of the Sun would heat the stratosphere instead of greenhouse effect will cool the stratosphere. Cooling of the lower stratosphere has been observed at least since 1960, [7] are not going to happen when the activity of the Sun to be the main contributor to this warming. (Thinning of the ozone layer can also provide the cooling effect but the depletion occurred from the late 1970s.) Phenomenon, combined with variations in the Sun volcanic activity may have provided the heating effect of pre-industrial times until 1950, and the cooling effect since 1950 . [8] [9]
There are several studies stating that the contribution of the Sun may have been overlooked in global warming. Two scientists from Duke University estimated that the Sun may have contributed to 45-50% increase in average temperatures globally during the period 1900-2000, and approximately 25-35% between 1980 and 2000. [10] Stott and his colleagues argue that climate models guiding the current estimate of the effect of excessive gas-greenhouse gases compared with the effects of the sun, they also noted that the cooling effects of volcanic ash and sulfate aerosols have also been considered trivial. [11] Nevertheless, they concluded that even with increased sensitivity The sun influences the climate though, most of the warming that occurred in the last decades is caused by the gas-greenhouse gases.
In 2006, a team of scientists from the United States, Germany and Switzerland stated that they found no increase in the level of "information" from the Sun in the last thousand years. Solar cycle gives only a small increase of about 0.07% in the level of "statement" during the last 30 years. This effect is too small to contribute to global pemansan. [12] [13] A study by Lockwood and Fröhlich found no relation between the variations of global warming since 1985, the Sun, either through a variation of the output of the Sun and the variations in cosmic rays. [ 14]
Elements of the cause of global warming is also influenced by various feedback processes that result. An example is the evaporation of water. In the case of gas heating due to increasing greenhouse-gases such as CO2, warming will initially lead to more number of water evaporating into the atmosphere. Because water vapor is itself a greenhouse gas, warming will continue and increase the amount of water vapor in the air until the achievement of an equilibrium concentration of water vapor. Greenhouse effect produced greater than the effect of CO2 alone. (Although this feedback increases the absolute water content in the air, the air relative humidity is almost constant or even slightly decreased because the air becomes warmer). [3] This feedback effect is only slowly because CO2 has a long age in the atmosphere.
Feedback effect due to the influence of clouds is the object of current research. When viewed from below, clouds will reflect infrared radiation back to the surface, thereby increasing the heating effect. In contrast when viewed from above, these clouds will reflect sunlight and infrared radiation into space, thereby increasing the cooling effect. Is it the net effect of producing heating or cooling depending on some specific details such as the type and height of the cloud. The details are difficult to be represented in climate models, partly because the cloud is very small compared with the distance between computational limits of climate models (about 125 to 500 km for the model used in the IPCC report to view Four). Nevertheless, cloud feedback ranked second when compared with the water vapor feedback and is considered a positive (warming increase) in all models used in the IPCC report into the Four Views. [3]
Another important feedback is the loss of ability to reflect light (Albedo) by the ice. [4] As global temperatures increase, ice near the poles to melt with increasing speed. Along with the melting of the ice, land or water below it will open. Both land and water have the ability to reflect light much less when compared with the ice, and consequently will absorb more sun radiation. This will increase the warming and cause more ice to melt, into a continuous cycle.
Positive feedback due to release of CO2 and CH4 from the softening of frozen soil (permafrost) are other mechanisms that contribute to warming. In addition, the melting ice will also release CH4 is also causing a positive feedback.
Ocean's ability to absorb carbon will also be reduced if it warms, it menurunya caused by nutrient levels in the mesopelagic zone of limiting the growth of diatoms than the phytoplankton, which is a low carbon sinks. [5]
[edit] Solar variation
Solar variation over 30 years terakhir.Artikel Main is: Variations Sun
There is a hypothesis which states that the variation of the Sun, with a possibility reinforced by feedback from clouds, can contribute in the current warming. [6] The difference between this mechanism with the warming due to greenhouse effect is the increased activity of the Sun would heat the stratosphere instead of greenhouse effect will cool the stratosphere. Cooling of the lower stratosphere has been observed at least since 1960, [7] are not going to happen when the activity of the Sun to be the main contributor to this warming. (Thinning of the ozone layer can also provide the cooling effect but the depletion occurred from the late 1970s.) Phenomenon, combined with variations in the Sun volcanic activity may have provided the heating effect of pre-industrial times until 1950, and the cooling effect since 1950 . [8] [9]
There are several studies stating that the contribution of the Sun may have been overlooked in global warming. Two scientists from Duke University estimated that the Sun may have contributed to 45-50% increase in average temperatures globally during the period 1900-2000, and approximately 25-35% between 1980 and 2000. [10] Stott and his colleagues argue that climate models guiding the current estimate of the effect of excessive gas-greenhouse gases compared with the effects of the sun, they also noted that the cooling effects of volcanic ash and sulfate aerosols have also been considered trivial. [11] Nevertheless, they concluded that even with increased sensitivity The sun influences the climate though, most of the warming that occurred in the last decades is caused by the gas-greenhouse gases.
In 2006, a team of scientists from the United States, Germany and Switzerland stated that they found no increase in the level of "information" from the Sun in the last thousand years. Solar cycle gives only a small increase of about 0.07% in the level of "statement" during the last 30 years. This effect is too small to contribute to global pemansan. [12] [13] A study by Lockwood and Fröhlich found no relation between the variations of global warming since 1985, the Sun, either through a variation of the output of the Sun and the variations in cosmic rays. [ 14]
Early national movement
Early national movement
In 1926, Sukarno founded Algemene Study Club in Bandung. This organization became the embryo of the Indonesian National Party, founded in 1927. Sukarno's PNI activity causes arrest in the Netherlands in December 1929, and led to a phenomenal pledoinya: Indonesia Sue, to be released back on December 31, 1931.
In July 1932, Sukarno joined the Party of Indonesia (Partindo), which is a fraction of the PNI. Sukarno was arrested again in August 1933, and exiled to Flores. Here, Sukarno was almost forgotten by the national figures. But his spirit still burning as implied in every letter to a teacher of Islamic Unity named Ahmad Hassan.
In the year 1938 until the year 1942 Sukarno was exiled to Bengkulu Province.
New Soekarno-free return during the Japanese occupation in 1942.
[edit] Japanese occupation
Sukarno with GunturPada Fatmawati and early Japanese colonial period (1942-1945), the Japanese government had not noticed movement figures for Indonesia, especially "secure" its presence in Indonesia. This looks at the character's Movement 3A and Mr. Shimizu. Shamsuddin is not so popular.
But eventually, the Japanese occupation government attention and at the same time take advantage of Indonesian figures such as Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta and others in each of the organizations and institutions to attract the hearts institutions Indonesian population. Mentioned in various organizations such as Java Hokokai, Center for the People's Power (Putera), BPUPKI and PPKI, of figures such as Sukarno, Hatta, Ki Hajar Dewantara, KH Mas Mansyur and other options mentioned and looks very active. And finally the national leaders in cooperation with the occupation government to achieve the independence of Indonesia, although some are underground movement like Sutan Syahrir and Amir Syarifuddin because they think Japan is a dangerous fascist.
DuniaPresiden leader Sukarno Sukarno among themselves, when opening statements before reading the text of the proclamation of independence, saying that although we work together with Japan we actually believe and believe and rely on their own strength.
He is active in preparation for the independence of Indonesia, including the formulation of Pancasila, the 1945 Constitution and the basic foundation of Indonesian rule, including formulating the text of the proclamation of Independence. He could be persuaded to get out to Rengasdengklok Events Rengasdengklok.
In 1943, Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo to invite leaders of Indonesia Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta and Ki Bagoes Hadikoesoemo to Japan and received by Emperor Hirohito. Even the emperor gave Star Empire (Holy Rachael) to the three figures is Indonesia. The awarding of stars that makes the Japanese occupation government was surprised, because it means that the three characters were considered Indonesia Japanese imperial family itself. In August 1945, he was invited by Marshal Terauchi, the Army leadership in the Southeast Asian region Dalat Vietnam who later declared that the proclamation of Indonesian independence is a matter of the Indonesian people themselves.
But his involvement in bodies formed organization accused Japan made by the Dutch Sukarno cooperated with the Japanese, among others, in the case romusha.
In 1926, Sukarno founded Algemene Study Club in Bandung. This organization became the embryo of the Indonesian National Party, founded in 1927. Sukarno's PNI activity causes arrest in the Netherlands in December 1929, and led to a phenomenal pledoinya: Indonesia Sue, to be released back on December 31, 1931.
In July 1932, Sukarno joined the Party of Indonesia (Partindo), which is a fraction of the PNI. Sukarno was arrested again in August 1933, and exiled to Flores. Here, Sukarno was almost forgotten by the national figures. But his spirit still burning as implied in every letter to a teacher of Islamic Unity named Ahmad Hassan.
In the year 1938 until the year 1942 Sukarno was exiled to Bengkulu Province.
New Soekarno-free return during the Japanese occupation in 1942.
[edit] Japanese occupation
Sukarno with GunturPada Fatmawati and early Japanese colonial period (1942-1945), the Japanese government had not noticed movement figures for Indonesia, especially "secure" its presence in Indonesia. This looks at the character's Movement 3A and Mr. Shimizu. Shamsuddin is not so popular.
But eventually, the Japanese occupation government attention and at the same time take advantage of Indonesian figures such as Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta and others in each of the organizations and institutions to attract the hearts institutions Indonesian population. Mentioned in various organizations such as Java Hokokai, Center for the People's Power (Putera), BPUPKI and PPKI, of figures such as Sukarno, Hatta, Ki Hajar Dewantara, KH Mas Mansyur and other options mentioned and looks very active. And finally the national leaders in cooperation with the occupation government to achieve the independence of Indonesia, although some are underground movement like Sutan Syahrir and Amir Syarifuddin because they think Japan is a dangerous fascist.
DuniaPresiden leader Sukarno Sukarno among themselves, when opening statements before reading the text of the proclamation of independence, saying that although we work together with Japan we actually believe and believe and rely on their own strength.
He is active in preparation for the independence of Indonesia, including the formulation of Pancasila, the 1945 Constitution and the basic foundation of Indonesian rule, including formulating the text of the proclamation of Independence. He could be persuaded to get out to Rengasdengklok Events Rengasdengklok.
In 1943, Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo to invite leaders of Indonesia Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta and Ki Bagoes Hadikoesoemo to Japan and received by Emperor Hirohito. Even the emperor gave Star Empire (Holy Rachael) to the three figures is Indonesia. The awarding of stars that makes the Japanese occupation government was surprised, because it means that the three characters were considered Indonesia Japanese imperial family itself. In August 1945, he was invited by Marshal Terauchi, the Army leadership in the Southeast Asian region Dalat Vietnam who later declared that the proclamation of Indonesian independence is a matter of the Indonesian people themselves.
But his involvement in bodies formed organization accused Japan made by the Dutch Sukarno cooperated with the Japanese, among others, in the case romusha.
Sunday, November 1, 2009
Livestock (meat consumption)
Livestock (meat consumption)
Part of this article needs some work. Please help us to do so.
This article does not have a reference source so that it can not be verified.
Please help improve this article by adding a proper reference.
This article can not be verified can be removed at any time by the Board.
In a recent report, Fourth Assessment Report, issued by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a UN body made up of 1300 scientists from around the world, revealed that 90% of human activity during the last 250 years is what makes the planet hotter. Since the Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide levels rising from 280 ppm to 379 ppm in the last 150 years. No kidding, increased concentration of CO2 in the Earth's atmosphere was the highest since 650,000 years!
The IPCC also concluded that 90% of greenhouse gases produced by humans, such as carbon dioxide, methane and Nitrous oxide, especially during these 50 years, has dramatically raised the temperature of the Earth. Before the industrial period, human activities are not a lot of greenhouse gases, but population growth, deforestation, farming industry, and the use of fossil fuels causes greenhouse gases in the atmosphere grew more and contribute to global warming. [15]
Research that has been done by the experts during the last few decades shows that the heat was more of the planet and changing the earth's climate system is directly related to gas-greenhouse gases generated by human activity.
Specifically to monitor the causes and effects produced by global warming, United Nations (UN) formed a research group called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change called the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Every few years, thousands of experts and the best researchers in the world who joined the IPCC held a meeting to discuss the latest findings related to global warming, and make conclusions from the report and new discoveries are collected, then make a deal for a solution of the problem.
One of the first things they found was that some types of greenhouse gases directly responsible for the warming we experience, and the largest contributor is people from the creation of gases such greenhouse. Most of these greenhouse gases produced by livestock, the burning of fossil fuels in motor vehicles, modern factories, power plants, and deforestation.
However, according to United Nations reports about livestock and the environment published in 2006 revealed that, "farming is a producer of industrial greenhouse gas emissions are the largest (18%), this amount more than the combined emissions of all greenhouse gases worldwide transportation (13%). "Almost a fifth (20 percent) of carbon emissions come from livestock. This amount exceeds the combined emissions from all vehicles in the world! [16] [17] [18]
Farm sector has contributed 9 percent of carbon dioxide, 37 percent of methane gas (a warming effect 72 times stronger than CO2 within 20 years, and 23 times in 100 years), and 65 percent of Nitrous oxide (a warming effect over 296 times more stronger than CO2). Livestock also generates 64 percent of the ammonia produced by human intervention, which causes acid rain. [19]
Livestock has also been a major cause of damage to soil and water pollution. Currently the farm using 30 percent of the land surface on Earth, and even more land and water used to grow animal feed.
According to reports Mr. Steinfeld, senior author of the Food and Agriculture Organization, Impact of the Old Poor Farm - Environmental Issues and Options (Livestock's Long Shadow-Environmental Issues and Options), the ranch is the "main drivers of deforestation approximately .... 70 percent of former forests in the Amazon has been converted into field-enable livestock. [20]
In addition, the field of cattle feed has reduced the quality of the soil. Approximately 20 percent of the meadow go off due to excessive animal husbandry, compaction, and erosion. Livestock are also responsible for the consumption and pollution of water very much. In the United States alone, trillions of gallons of irrigation water used to grow livestock feed annually. Approximately 85 percent of water sources in the United States used to it. Livestock also cause excessive biological waste for the ecosystem.
Consumption of water to produce one pound of food in farm animal feed in the United States
1 kg of meat Water (liters)
Beef 1000000
3260 Pig
12,665 chickens
Soybean 2000
Rice 1912
Potatoes 500
Wheat 200
Slada 180
Besides damage to the environment and ecosystems, is not difficult to calculate that the livestock industry is not energy efficient. Livestock industry requires an abundance of energy to convert livestock into meat on the dinner table. To produce one kilogram of meat, has produced carbon dioxide emissions as much as 36.4 pounds. Whereas to produce one calorie of protein, we only require two calories of fossil fuel to produce soybeans, three calories for corn and wheat; but requires 54 calories of oil energy to the ground beef protein!
That means we have been squandering fossil fuel 27 times more just to make a hamburger rather than the consumption required to make a hamburger from soya beans!
By combining the cost of energy, water consumption, land use, environmental pollution, damage to ecosystems, it is not surprising if one person on a diet of meat can feed 15 people on a diet of plants or more.
Let us now discuss what is the source of greenhouse gases that cause global warming.
You may be wondering what part of the farm sector, which contributes greenhouse gas emissions. The following outline according to the FAO: [21]
1. Carbon emissions from the manufacture of cattle feed
a. The use of fossil fuels in the manufacture of fertilizer contributed 41 million tonnes of CO2 each year
b. The use of fossil fuels in the farm contributes 90 million tonnes of CO2 per year (eg, diesel or LPG)
c. Over the function of land used for livestock contributed 2.4 billion tons of CO2 per year, including the land here is modified for grazing livestock, which changed the land to plant soybeans as livestock feed, or clearing forests for farm land
d. Carbon is released from the processing of agricultural land for livestock feed (eg maize, wheat, or soybeans) can reach 28 million of CO2 per year. You need to know, at least 80% of soybean harvest and 50% of the world's corn crops used as food ternak.7
e. Carbon released from grasslands into deserts because of eroded contributed 100 million tons of CO2 per year
2. Carbon emissions from animal digestive systems
a. Methane is released in the digestive process of animals can reach 86 million tons per year.
b. Methane released from manure fertilizer can reach 18 million tons per year.
3. Carbon emissions from processing and transportation of cattle meat to the consumer
a. CO2 emissions from the processing of meat may reach tens of millions of tons per year.
b. CO2 emissions from transport of livestock products can reach more than 0.8 million tons per year.
From the above description, you can see the amount of the contribution of greenhouse gas emissions generated from each component of the farm sector. In Australia, greenhouse gas emissions from livestock sector is greater than power plant coal. Within 20 years, the Australian farm sector contributed 3 million tonnes of methane per year (equivalent to 216 million tonnes of CO2), while the power sector for coal contributes 180 million tons of CO2 per year.
Last year, investigators from the Department of Geophysical Sciences (Department of Geophysical Sciences) University of Chicago, Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, also reveals the relationship between food production and environmental problems. They measured the amount of greenhouse gases caused by red meat, fish, poultry, milk, and eggs, and compare that number with a vegan diet.
They found that if the standard American diet switched to a diet of plants, it will be able to prevent one and a half ton of greenhouse gas emissions per person extra per year. By contrast, switching from a standard sedan like the Toyota Camry to a hybrid Toyota Prius saves about one ton of CO2 emissions.
Part of this article needs some work. Please help us to do so.
This article does not have a reference source so that it can not be verified.
Please help improve this article by adding a proper reference.
This article can not be verified can be removed at any time by the Board.
In a recent report, Fourth Assessment Report, issued by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a UN body made up of 1300 scientists from around the world, revealed that 90% of human activity during the last 250 years is what makes the planet hotter. Since the Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide levels rising from 280 ppm to 379 ppm in the last 150 years. No kidding, increased concentration of CO2 in the Earth's atmosphere was the highest since 650,000 years!
The IPCC also concluded that 90% of greenhouse gases produced by humans, such as carbon dioxide, methane and Nitrous oxide, especially during these 50 years, has dramatically raised the temperature of the Earth. Before the industrial period, human activities are not a lot of greenhouse gases, but population growth, deforestation, farming industry, and the use of fossil fuels causes greenhouse gases in the atmosphere grew more and contribute to global warming. [15]
Research that has been done by the experts during the last few decades shows that the heat was more of the planet and changing the earth's climate system is directly related to gas-greenhouse gases generated by human activity.
Specifically to monitor the causes and effects produced by global warming, United Nations (UN) formed a research group called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change called the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Every few years, thousands of experts and the best researchers in the world who joined the IPCC held a meeting to discuss the latest findings related to global warming, and make conclusions from the report and new discoveries are collected, then make a deal for a solution of the problem.
One of the first things they found was that some types of greenhouse gases directly responsible for the warming we experience, and the largest contributor is people from the creation of gases such greenhouse. Most of these greenhouse gases produced by livestock, the burning of fossil fuels in motor vehicles, modern factories, power plants, and deforestation.
However, according to United Nations reports about livestock and the environment published in 2006 revealed that, "farming is a producer of industrial greenhouse gas emissions are the largest (18%), this amount more than the combined emissions of all greenhouse gases worldwide transportation (13%). "Almost a fifth (20 percent) of carbon emissions come from livestock. This amount exceeds the combined emissions from all vehicles in the world! [16] [17] [18]
Farm sector has contributed 9 percent of carbon dioxide, 37 percent of methane gas (a warming effect 72 times stronger than CO2 within 20 years, and 23 times in 100 years), and 65 percent of Nitrous oxide (a warming effect over 296 times more stronger than CO2). Livestock also generates 64 percent of the ammonia produced by human intervention, which causes acid rain. [19]
Livestock has also been a major cause of damage to soil and water pollution. Currently the farm using 30 percent of the land surface on Earth, and even more land and water used to grow animal feed.
According to reports Mr. Steinfeld, senior author of the Food and Agriculture Organization, Impact of the Old Poor Farm - Environmental Issues and Options (Livestock's Long Shadow-Environmental Issues and Options), the ranch is the "main drivers of deforestation approximately .... 70 percent of former forests in the Amazon has been converted into field-enable livestock. [20]
In addition, the field of cattle feed has reduced the quality of the soil. Approximately 20 percent of the meadow go off due to excessive animal husbandry, compaction, and erosion. Livestock are also responsible for the consumption and pollution of water very much. In the United States alone, trillions of gallons of irrigation water used to grow livestock feed annually. Approximately 85 percent of water sources in the United States used to it. Livestock also cause excessive biological waste for the ecosystem.
Consumption of water to produce one pound of food in farm animal feed in the United States
1 kg of meat Water (liters)
Beef 1000000
3260 Pig
12,665 chickens
Soybean 2000
Rice 1912
Potatoes 500
Wheat 200
Slada 180
Besides damage to the environment and ecosystems, is not difficult to calculate that the livestock industry is not energy efficient. Livestock industry requires an abundance of energy to convert livestock into meat on the dinner table. To produce one kilogram of meat, has produced carbon dioxide emissions as much as 36.4 pounds. Whereas to produce one calorie of protein, we only require two calories of fossil fuel to produce soybeans, three calories for corn and wheat; but requires 54 calories of oil energy to the ground beef protein!
That means we have been squandering fossil fuel 27 times more just to make a hamburger rather than the consumption required to make a hamburger from soya beans!
By combining the cost of energy, water consumption, land use, environmental pollution, damage to ecosystems, it is not surprising if one person on a diet of meat can feed 15 people on a diet of plants or more.
Let us now discuss what is the source of greenhouse gases that cause global warming.
You may be wondering what part of the farm sector, which contributes greenhouse gas emissions. The following outline according to the FAO: [21]
1. Carbon emissions from the manufacture of cattle feed
a. The use of fossil fuels in the manufacture of fertilizer contributed 41 million tonnes of CO2 each year
b. The use of fossil fuels in the farm contributes 90 million tonnes of CO2 per year (eg, diesel or LPG)
c. Over the function of land used for livestock contributed 2.4 billion tons of CO2 per year, including the land here is modified for grazing livestock, which changed the land to plant soybeans as livestock feed, or clearing forests for farm land
d. Carbon is released from the processing of agricultural land for livestock feed (eg maize, wheat, or soybeans) can reach 28 million of CO2 per year. You need to know, at least 80% of soybean harvest and 50% of the world's corn crops used as food ternak.7
e. Carbon released from grasslands into deserts because of eroded contributed 100 million tons of CO2 per year
2. Carbon emissions from animal digestive systems
a. Methane is released in the digestive process of animals can reach 86 million tons per year.
b. Methane released from manure fertilizer can reach 18 million tons per year.
3. Carbon emissions from processing and transportation of cattle meat to the consumer
a. CO2 emissions from the processing of meat may reach tens of millions of tons per year.
b. CO2 emissions from transport of livestock products can reach more than 0.8 million tons per year.
From the above description, you can see the amount of the contribution of greenhouse gas emissions generated from each component of the farm sector. In Australia, greenhouse gas emissions from livestock sector is greater than power plant coal. Within 20 years, the Australian farm sector contributed 3 million tonnes of methane per year (equivalent to 216 million tonnes of CO2), while the power sector for coal contributes 180 million tons of CO2 per year.
Last year, investigators from the Department of Geophysical Sciences (Department of Geophysical Sciences) University of Chicago, Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, also reveals the relationship between food production and environmental problems. They measured the amount of greenhouse gases caused by red meat, fish, poultry, milk, and eggs, and compare that number with a vegan diet.
They found that if the standard American diet switched to a diet of plants, it will be able to prevent one and a half ton of greenhouse gas emissions per person extra per year. By contrast, switching from a standard sedan like the Toyota Camry to a hybrid Toyota Prius saves about one ton of CO2 emissions.
Friday, October 30, 2009
The Importance Of An Accurate Cholesterol Test
The Importance Of An Accurate Cholesterol Test
The advances made by medical science truly cannot be underestimated. Diseases that terrified humanity hundreds of years ago are now cured, controlled or wiped out.
The modern lifestyle includes vaccinations, safe housing, accessible medical care and vitamin supplements as well as good health information. People are living longer, healthier lives. One exception to the benefit of the modern lifestyle, however, is the modern diet.
Where mankind once lived on small meals of fresh fruits and vegetables supplemented with roasted meat, now an average person eats three or more meals a day of foods heavy with flavor-filled fats and artificial ingredients. Our diet changes more rapidly than medical science can assess the effects. Fortunately, one addition to the modern lifestyle is the cholesterol test.
Why Test it?
Your cholesterol levels are an indication of potential heart disease. High levels of bad cholesterol, HDL, can foretell the hardening of arteries that can result in heart disease or a heart attack. As serious as high cholesterol is, there are no symptoms that can warn someone of a problem.
And following a diet filled with foods low in cholesterol and foods that can lower cholesterol is no guarantee that your body is not making too much HDL, either. The only way to know your cholesterol levels is to take a cholesterol test. Of course, the results of a cholesterol test are not the only indication of a problem or the lack of one. Your doctor will also want to listen to your heart, check your heart rate, take your blood pressure, ask about your medical history and perform a full physical exam. That’s because your levels don’t tell the whole story.
What your cholesterol test does tell is the level of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL - the “bad” cholesterol), the level of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL - the “good” cholesterol), triglycerides (very low density lipoprotein) and the total cholesterol level.
If your cholesterol is too high, your doctor can discuss options to help lower it. You would probably be told to change your diet and exercise habits and if the numbers are very high or you have a contributing condition like diabetes, you may be put on medication. Doctors recommend that everyone over the age of 20 take a cholesterol test at least once every five years.
Even though medical science tries to control cholesterol levels through foods low in cholesterol, most cholesterol is made in the body itself. The best way for your doctor to understand how your body is dealing with cholesterol is through your cholesterol test.
The advances made by medical science truly cannot be underestimated. Diseases that terrified humanity hundreds of years ago are now cured, controlled or wiped out.
The modern lifestyle includes vaccinations, safe housing, accessible medical care and vitamin supplements as well as good health information. People are living longer, healthier lives. One exception to the benefit of the modern lifestyle, however, is the modern diet.
Where mankind once lived on small meals of fresh fruits and vegetables supplemented with roasted meat, now an average person eats three or more meals a day of foods heavy with flavor-filled fats and artificial ingredients. Our diet changes more rapidly than medical science can assess the effects. Fortunately, one addition to the modern lifestyle is the cholesterol test.
Why Test it?
Your cholesterol levels are an indication of potential heart disease. High levels of bad cholesterol, HDL, can foretell the hardening of arteries that can result in heart disease or a heart attack. As serious as high cholesterol is, there are no symptoms that can warn someone of a problem.
And following a diet filled with foods low in cholesterol and foods that can lower cholesterol is no guarantee that your body is not making too much HDL, either. The only way to know your cholesterol levels is to take a cholesterol test. Of course, the results of a cholesterol test are not the only indication of a problem or the lack of one. Your doctor will also want to listen to your heart, check your heart rate, take your blood pressure, ask about your medical history and perform a full physical exam. That’s because your levels don’t tell the whole story.
What your cholesterol test does tell is the level of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL - the “bad” cholesterol), the level of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL - the “good” cholesterol), triglycerides (very low density lipoprotein) and the total cholesterol level.
If your cholesterol is too high, your doctor can discuss options to help lower it. You would probably be told to change your diet and exercise habits and if the numbers are very high or you have a contributing condition like diabetes, you may be put on medication. Doctors recommend that everyone over the age of 20 take a cholesterol test at least once every five years.
Even though medical science tries to control cholesterol levels through foods low in cholesterol, most cholesterol is made in the body itself. The best way for your doctor to understand how your body is dealing with cholesterol is through your cholesterol test.
Sunday, October 25, 2009
Accomplishment
3 Grades of Chemicals for Thames Kosmos Chemistry Sets
Chemistry sets from brands like Thames Kosmos, Scientific Explorer and Powertech provide children with hours of educational entertainment. The great thing about these sets is they provide all the chemicals and materials required to conduct the experiments. But what do you do when the chemicals have all been used?
Walmart seems to have just about everything but have you ever found the chemicals aisle? Not only are chemicals hard to find but who even knows what to buy? This article explains the difference between 3 grades of chemicals so you can know the right chemicals for your next school experiment, homework assignment or science fair project.
Chemistry sets can awaken an interest in chemistry and the physical world, setting children on a path to a future career. Even the most basic chemistry sets are filled with experiments that will peak and keep the interest of children who already have a basic scientific interest or knowledge, or those who are absolute beginners. Chemistry experiments are designed to teach things like air pressure and water tension, and how everyday things function. Some of the experiments work with benign objects, while others require chemicals.
Not all the experiments found in chemistry sets like the Thames Kosmos series require the use of chemicals. For those that do, it’s good to know what you’re working with, and what your choices are when you need to purchase chemicals.
Most chemicals are graded, the grade representing the purity of the chemical. A chemical with a higher grade has fewer impurities, or other chemicals, such as metals and water, than those with a lower grade. The cost of chemicals is in keeping with its grade: a higher grade is more expensive than lower grades.
Although there are several different protocols for grading chemicals, there are three basic grades that are the most common and most likely to be used. They are, from highest to lowest, reagent grade, laboratory grade, and technical grade.
Reagent grade, also known as ACS, is the highest chemical grade there is, meaning it is the most pure. It meets or exceeds American Chemical Society standards. Chemicals graded as reagent grade can be used in all situations, from scientific to manufacturing. It is the only chemical grade that can be used in biological experiments.
Laboratory grade chemicals, which may also be referred to as lab, are less pure than reagent grade chemicals, but are still of a fairly high purity. These chemicals would not be pure enough to use in medical or food products, but they are usually more than adequate for science fair projects.
Technical grade chemicals are also called industrial grade, and are the least pure chemicals. Chemicals of this grade are typically used in industrial or commercial applications, but may be adequate for some science fair projects. These chemicals are not acceptable for use in food or medicinal purposes.
If your experiment has stringent requirements for chemical purity, your best bet would be purchasing from a chemical supply house where you can be assured of the grade of chemical you are purchasing. If you are unsure of what grade is needed for a particular experiment, laboratory grade is a safe choice.
So now that you have a handle on that, where do you go to find the chemicals you need? You don’t have to buy chemistry sets to get more chemicals. You can actually purchase just the chemicals at various stores (hardware store, drug store, even the grocery store) rather than a chemical supply house. However, before you get excited about that, there is a problem. When you buy from these types of stores, the chemicals are unlikely to be graded and may contain an unacceptable level of impurities for the experiment being performed.
Now you can buy the right chemical with confidence that it will get the job done. Having the proper chemicals allows you to successfully conduct experiments. It also allows you to replenish the supply of chemicals in your old Thames Kosmos chemistry sets so you can blow the dust off of the set and put it back to good use.
Chemistry sets from brands like Thames Kosmos, Scientific Explorer and Powertech provide children with hours of educational entertainment. The great thing about these sets is they provide all the chemicals and materials required to conduct the experiments. But what do you do when the chemicals have all been used?
Walmart seems to have just about everything but have you ever found the chemicals aisle? Not only are chemicals hard to find but who even knows what to buy? This article explains the difference between 3 grades of chemicals so you can know the right chemicals for your next school experiment, homework assignment or science fair project.
Chemistry sets can awaken an interest in chemistry and the physical world, setting children on a path to a future career. Even the most basic chemistry sets are filled with experiments that will peak and keep the interest of children who already have a basic scientific interest or knowledge, or those who are absolute beginners. Chemistry experiments are designed to teach things like air pressure and water tension, and how everyday things function. Some of the experiments work with benign objects, while others require chemicals.
Not all the experiments found in chemistry sets like the Thames Kosmos series require the use of chemicals. For those that do, it’s good to know what you’re working with, and what your choices are when you need to purchase chemicals.
Most chemicals are graded, the grade representing the purity of the chemical. A chemical with a higher grade has fewer impurities, or other chemicals, such as metals and water, than those with a lower grade. The cost of chemicals is in keeping with its grade: a higher grade is more expensive than lower grades.
Although there are several different protocols for grading chemicals, there are three basic grades that are the most common and most likely to be used. They are, from highest to lowest, reagent grade, laboratory grade, and technical grade.
Reagent grade, also known as ACS, is the highest chemical grade there is, meaning it is the most pure. It meets or exceeds American Chemical Society standards. Chemicals graded as reagent grade can be used in all situations, from scientific to manufacturing. It is the only chemical grade that can be used in biological experiments.
Laboratory grade chemicals, which may also be referred to as lab, are less pure than reagent grade chemicals, but are still of a fairly high purity. These chemicals would not be pure enough to use in medical or food products, but they are usually more than adequate for science fair projects.
Technical grade chemicals are also called industrial grade, and are the least pure chemicals. Chemicals of this grade are typically used in industrial or commercial applications, but may be adequate for some science fair projects. These chemicals are not acceptable for use in food or medicinal purposes.
If your experiment has stringent requirements for chemical purity, your best bet would be purchasing from a chemical supply house where you can be assured of the grade of chemical you are purchasing. If you are unsure of what grade is needed for a particular experiment, laboratory grade is a safe choice.
So now that you have a handle on that, where do you go to find the chemicals you need? You don’t have to buy chemistry sets to get more chemicals. You can actually purchase just the chemicals at various stores (hardware store, drug store, even the grocery store) rather than a chemical supply house. However, before you get excited about that, there is a problem. When you buy from these types of stores, the chemicals are unlikely to be graded and may contain an unacceptable level of impurities for the experiment being performed.
Now you can buy the right chemical with confidence that it will get the job done. Having the proper chemicals allows you to successfully conduct experiments. It also allows you to replenish the supply of chemicals in your old Thames Kosmos chemistry sets so you can blow the dust off of the set and put it back to good use.
Tuesday, October 20, 2009
3 Grades of Chemicals for Thames Kosmos Chemistry Sets
3 Grades of Chemicals for Thames Kosmos Chemistry Sets
Chemistry sets from brands like Thames Kosmos, Scientific Explorer and Powertech provide children with hours of educational entertainment. The great thing about these sets is they provide all the chemicals and materials required to conduct the experiments. But what do you do when the chemicals have all been used?
Walmart seems to have just about everything but have you ever found the chemicals aisle? Not only are chemicals hard to find but who even knows what to buy? This article explains the difference between 3 grades of chemicals so you can know the right chemicals for your next school experiment, homework assignment or science fair project.
Chemistry sets can awaken an interest in chemistry and the physical world, setting children on a path to a future career. Even the most basic chemistry sets are filled with experiments that will peak and keep the interest of children who already have a basic scientific interest or knowledge, or those who are absolute beginners. Chemistry experiments are designed to teach things like air pressure and water tension, and how everyday things function. Some of the experiments work with benign objects, while others require chemicals.
Not all the experiments found in chemistry sets like the Thames Kosmos series require the use of chemicals. For those that do, it’s good to know what you’re working with, and what your choices are when you need to purchase chemicals.
Most chemicals are graded, the grade representing the purity of the chemical. A chemical with a higher grade has fewer impurities, or other chemicals, such as metals and water, than those with a lower grade. The cost of chemicals is in keeping with its grade: a higher grade is more expensive than lower grades.
Although there are several different protocols for grading chemicals, there are three basic grades that are the most common and most likely to be used. They are, from highest to lowest, reagent grade, laboratory grade, and technical grade.
Reagent grade, also known as ACS, is the highest chemical grade there is, meaning it is the most pure. It meets or exceeds American Chemical Society standards. Chemicals graded as reagent grade can be used in all situations, from scientific to manufacturing. It is the only chemical grade that can be used in biological experiments.
Laboratory grade chemicals, which may also be referred to as lab, are less pure than reagent grade chemicals, but are still of a fairly high purity. These chemicals would not be pure enough to use in medical or food products, but they are usually more than adequate for science fair projects.
Technical grade chemicals are also called industrial grade, and are the least pure chemicals. Chemicals of this grade are typically used in industrial or commercial applications, but may be adequate for some science fair projects. These chemicals are not acceptable for use in food or medicinal purposes.
If your experiment has stringent requirements for chemical purity, your best bet would be purchasing from a chemical supply house where you can be assured of the grade of chemical you are purchasing. If you are unsure of what grade is needed for a particular experiment, laboratory grade is a safe choice.
So now that you have a handle on that, where do you go to find the chemicals you need? You don’t have to buy chemistry sets to get more chemicals. You can actually purchase just the chemicals at various stores (hardware store, drug store, even the grocery store) rather than a chemical supply house. However, before you get excited about that, there is a problem. When you buy from these types of stores, the chemicals are unlikely to be graded and may contain an unacceptable level of impurities for the experiment being performed.
Now you can buy the right chemical with confidence that it will get the job done. Having the proper chemicals allows you to successfully conduct experiments. It also allows you to replenish the supply of chemicals in your old Thames Kosmos chemistry sets so you can blow the dust off of the set and put it back to good use.
Chemistry sets from brands like Thames Kosmos, Scientific Explorer and Powertech provide children with hours of educational entertainment. The great thing about these sets is they provide all the chemicals and materials required to conduct the experiments. But what do you do when the chemicals have all been used?
Walmart seems to have just about everything but have you ever found the chemicals aisle? Not only are chemicals hard to find but who even knows what to buy? This article explains the difference between 3 grades of chemicals so you can know the right chemicals for your next school experiment, homework assignment or science fair project.
Chemistry sets can awaken an interest in chemistry and the physical world, setting children on a path to a future career. Even the most basic chemistry sets are filled with experiments that will peak and keep the interest of children who already have a basic scientific interest or knowledge, or those who are absolute beginners. Chemistry experiments are designed to teach things like air pressure and water tension, and how everyday things function. Some of the experiments work with benign objects, while others require chemicals.
Not all the experiments found in chemistry sets like the Thames Kosmos series require the use of chemicals. For those that do, it’s good to know what you’re working with, and what your choices are when you need to purchase chemicals.
Most chemicals are graded, the grade representing the purity of the chemical. A chemical with a higher grade has fewer impurities, or other chemicals, such as metals and water, than those with a lower grade. The cost of chemicals is in keeping with its grade: a higher grade is more expensive than lower grades.
Although there are several different protocols for grading chemicals, there are three basic grades that are the most common and most likely to be used. They are, from highest to lowest, reagent grade, laboratory grade, and technical grade.
Reagent grade, also known as ACS, is the highest chemical grade there is, meaning it is the most pure. It meets or exceeds American Chemical Society standards. Chemicals graded as reagent grade can be used in all situations, from scientific to manufacturing. It is the only chemical grade that can be used in biological experiments.
Laboratory grade chemicals, which may also be referred to as lab, are less pure than reagent grade chemicals, but are still of a fairly high purity. These chemicals would not be pure enough to use in medical or food products, but they are usually more than adequate for science fair projects.
Technical grade chemicals are also called industrial grade, and are the least pure chemicals. Chemicals of this grade are typically used in industrial or commercial applications, but may be adequate for some science fair projects. These chemicals are not acceptable for use in food or medicinal purposes.
If your experiment has stringent requirements for chemical purity, your best bet would be purchasing from a chemical supply house where you can be assured of the grade of chemical you are purchasing. If you are unsure of what grade is needed for a particular experiment, laboratory grade is a safe choice.
So now that you have a handle on that, where do you go to find the chemicals you need? You don’t have to buy chemistry sets to get more chemicals. You can actually purchase just the chemicals at various stores (hardware store, drug store, even the grocery store) rather than a chemical supply house. However, before you get excited about that, there is a problem. When you buy from these types of stores, the chemicals are unlikely to be graded and may contain an unacceptable level of impurities for the experiment being performed.
Now you can buy the right chemical with confidence that it will get the job done. Having the proper chemicals allows you to successfully conduct experiments. It also allows you to replenish the supply of chemicals in your old Thames Kosmos chemistry sets so you can blow the dust off of the set and put it back to good use.
Thursday, October 15, 2009
Homeschooling Facts - Research against Homeschooling
Homeschooling Facts - Research against Homeschooling
A lot of research has been done to proof that homeschooled children’s academic achievements are better than that of learners in public schools.
There is, on the other hand, very little research available to proof arguments against homeschooling.
Certain questions that were raised by experts in the education field can, however, not be ignored.
Regulation of homeschooling seems to lack dismally in most states of the USA. The parent has the freedom to teach any curriculum and some even work without a specific curriculum.
Marty Hittelman, the president of the California Federation for teachers, has a problem with the stringent standards, evaluation and training teachers are subjected to, in public schools, compared to homeschooling parents that are not expected to undergo training or any form of standardized evaluation.
According to the California Federation for Teachers, there are also no standards or specific exit exams imposed on homeschooling students, in the California region. This seems to be the rule rather than the exceptions in most of the states. Even though these arguments proof some problems regarding the control of homeschooling by the state, it is necessary to mention that regardless of this, most children being homeschooled still have much higher grades than most of their peers in public schools.
Further than these specific negatives been pointed out regarding the regulations by the state, the rest of the opposing arguments against homeschooling are just arguments and there is no research available to proof the validity of these arguments.
Many of these arguments point to possible problems, that any parent considering homeschooling should definitely be aware of.
Most of the arguments against homeschooling rather has to do with the ability of the family to provide the correct homeschooling opposed to definite research that homeschooling is wrong for everybody.
There is no argument against the fact that there are many challenges for homeschooling parents and children. Before homeschooling can be successful and be of more benefit to the child than public schooling, the parents will have to realize and overcome these challenges.
A lot of research has been done to proof that homeschooled children’s academic achievements are better than that of learners in public schools.
There is, on the other hand, very little research available to proof arguments against homeschooling.
Certain questions that were raised by experts in the education field can, however, not be ignored.
Regulation of homeschooling seems to lack dismally in most states of the USA. The parent has the freedom to teach any curriculum and some even work without a specific curriculum.
Marty Hittelman, the president of the California Federation for teachers, has a problem with the stringent standards, evaluation and training teachers are subjected to, in public schools, compared to homeschooling parents that are not expected to undergo training or any form of standardized evaluation.
According to the California Federation for Teachers, there are also no standards or specific exit exams imposed on homeschooling students, in the California region. This seems to be the rule rather than the exceptions in most of the states. Even though these arguments proof some problems regarding the control of homeschooling by the state, it is necessary to mention that regardless of this, most children being homeschooled still have much higher grades than most of their peers in public schools.
Further than these specific negatives been pointed out regarding the regulations by the state, the rest of the opposing arguments against homeschooling are just arguments and there is no research available to proof the validity of these arguments.
Many of these arguments point to possible problems, that any parent considering homeschooling should definitely be aware of.
Most of the arguments against homeschooling rather has to do with the ability of the family to provide the correct homeschooling opposed to definite research that homeschooling is wrong for everybody.
There is no argument against the fact that there are many challenges for homeschooling parents and children. Before homeschooling can be successful and be of more benefit to the child than public schooling, the parents will have to realize and overcome these challenges.
Saturday, October 10, 2009
Thinking About Homeschooling Your Children? It’s an Awesome Experience that Delivers Superior Education!
Thinking About Homeschooling Your Children? It’s an Awesome Experience that Delivers Superior Education!
Many parents are becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the current public education system. The coursework has systematically declined in content and class sizes, typically consisting of 30 or more students, creates a situation where a lack of discipline among students sets the stage for bullying and even more dangerous events. The overcrowding of classrooms makes it difficult, if not impossible, for teachers to exercise adequate supervision.
All of these factors contribute to greater numbers of parents seeking an alternative education venue. How about homeschooling? Educating your children at home is one of your best alternatives. You need not have a teaching credential to home school. Every state has accredited homeschooling programs, with a curriculum defining the subjects you must cover and periodic testing that demonstrates a certain level of achievement equal to public school programs.
Here we take a look about homeschooling programs and how your child can receive a superior education to that offered in the public schools. We hear so much about that ‘quality time’ spent with your kids. Well, homeschooling offers a way to spend hours with your kids every day, in one of the most valuable experiences parents and children can share. Imparting knowledge in this one-on-one environment is one of the richest, most productive and satisfying you’ll ever enjoy.
The only caveat about homeschooling is that you must enroll your child in an accredited homeschooling program. This is not a difficult or highly bureaucratic process, not much more than is required to register your child in public school. A call to your local school district gets you on the rosters in short order.
One of the best features about homeschooling is that you can organize the school lessons pretty much the way you like. A mix of structured and unstructured lesson plans usually works well for almost any schedule. For example, scheduling for sick days: if your child wakes up with a sore throat, has a case of poison oak or a sprained ankle, this doesn’t mean a missed day of school. This may be a good day to read story books, or watch a special on Animal Planet. Learning can take place cozied under a blanket on the sofa, with a cup of soup or cocoa. You’ll also find that your child will have fewer sick days, not being exposed to kids with a cold or fever in the public classroom.
Another wonderful thing about homeschooling is the latitude you have with respect to what you can add to the education of your child. While fulfilling the requirements of the state mandated curriculum, your one-on-one environment allows for comprehensive, in-depth examinations of subject matter. Let’s say your child’s coursework requires that you cover state geography. In public school, a certain amount of time is allotted to this lesson, but when you’re talking about homeschooling, you have the time to pull out the atlas and explain topographical maps. Kids learn faster and more easily when they can take their time and ask as many questions as they like. If your child is fascinated with the subject matter, why not spend the entire school day on that subject? Tomorrow’s another day.
On the other hand, there are bound to be some subjects which your child doesn’t enjoy. In public school classrooms, there’s no latitude in choosing time slots for subjects. How about homeschooling? You can break up the lesson into manageable chunks, diminishing the boredom and frustration. The material will still be covered, in a manner that promotes learning and gets the tasks completed and understood.
This approach also helps a child’s self esteem. There’s no peer pressure by other students which may cause your child to feel ’stupid’, or falling asleep in class, resulting in a poor grade and a lasting dislike for that subject. When it comes to educating children, one size does not fit all. So this is yet another of the advantages about homeschooling: your lessons can be customized to the specific needs of your child.
Television can be a terrific resource for the home schooled child. Animal planet, the Discovery channel and the History channel offer lessons your child might never get in public school. You’ll find abundant TV resources for the language arts, including grammar, composition, and even foreign language lessons.
In addition to television lessons, you’ve got the net. Let’s say your child does not enjoy math. There are hundreds of kid’s learning sites which have interactive math games which are fun for kids and produce results. These sites are run by education professionals, who provide practice tests. These help point out the concepts your child finds difficult, so you know where your future lesson emphasis should be.
Teachers in public school seldom have the time to identify an individual student’s weaknesses. So there you have another plus about homeschooling in contrast to public school. Other net resources include free online and downloadable dictionaries, thesauri i, grammar and spelling game sites and e-books to enrich your child’s learning experience and knowledge base.
Many parents are becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the current public education system. The coursework has systematically declined in content and class sizes, typically consisting of 30 or more students, creates a situation where a lack of discipline among students sets the stage for bullying and even more dangerous events. The overcrowding of classrooms makes it difficult, if not impossible, for teachers to exercise adequate supervision.
All of these factors contribute to greater numbers of parents seeking an alternative education venue. How about homeschooling? Educating your children at home is one of your best alternatives. You need not have a teaching credential to home school. Every state has accredited homeschooling programs, with a curriculum defining the subjects you must cover and periodic testing that demonstrates a certain level of achievement equal to public school programs.
Here we take a look about homeschooling programs and how your child can receive a superior education to that offered in the public schools. We hear so much about that ‘quality time’ spent with your kids. Well, homeschooling offers a way to spend hours with your kids every day, in one of the most valuable experiences parents and children can share. Imparting knowledge in this one-on-one environment is one of the richest, most productive and satisfying you’ll ever enjoy.
The only caveat about homeschooling is that you must enroll your child in an accredited homeschooling program. This is not a difficult or highly bureaucratic process, not much more than is required to register your child in public school. A call to your local school district gets you on the rosters in short order.
One of the best features about homeschooling is that you can organize the school lessons pretty much the way you like. A mix of structured and unstructured lesson plans usually works well for almost any schedule. For example, scheduling for sick days: if your child wakes up with a sore throat, has a case of poison oak or a sprained ankle, this doesn’t mean a missed day of school. This may be a good day to read story books, or watch a special on Animal Planet. Learning can take place cozied under a blanket on the sofa, with a cup of soup or cocoa. You’ll also find that your child will have fewer sick days, not being exposed to kids with a cold or fever in the public classroom.
Another wonderful thing about homeschooling is the latitude you have with respect to what you can add to the education of your child. While fulfilling the requirements of the state mandated curriculum, your one-on-one environment allows for comprehensive, in-depth examinations of subject matter. Let’s say your child’s coursework requires that you cover state geography. In public school, a certain amount of time is allotted to this lesson, but when you’re talking about homeschooling, you have the time to pull out the atlas and explain topographical maps. Kids learn faster and more easily when they can take their time and ask as many questions as they like. If your child is fascinated with the subject matter, why not spend the entire school day on that subject? Tomorrow’s another day.
On the other hand, there are bound to be some subjects which your child doesn’t enjoy. In public school classrooms, there’s no latitude in choosing time slots for subjects. How about homeschooling? You can break up the lesson into manageable chunks, diminishing the boredom and frustration. The material will still be covered, in a manner that promotes learning and gets the tasks completed and understood.
This approach also helps a child’s self esteem. There’s no peer pressure by other students which may cause your child to feel ’stupid’, or falling asleep in class, resulting in a poor grade and a lasting dislike for that subject. When it comes to educating children, one size does not fit all. So this is yet another of the advantages about homeschooling: your lessons can be customized to the specific needs of your child.
Television can be a terrific resource for the home schooled child. Animal planet, the Discovery channel and the History channel offer lessons your child might never get in public school. You’ll find abundant TV resources for the language arts, including grammar, composition, and even foreign language lessons.
In addition to television lessons, you’ve got the net. Let’s say your child does not enjoy math. There are hundreds of kid’s learning sites which have interactive math games which are fun for kids and produce results. These sites are run by education professionals, who provide practice tests. These help point out the concepts your child finds difficult, so you know where your future lesson emphasis should be.
Teachers in public school seldom have the time to identify an individual student’s weaknesses. So there you have another plus about homeschooling in contrast to public school. Other net resources include free online and downloadable dictionaries, thesauri i, grammar and spelling game sites and e-books to enrich your child’s learning experience and knowledge base.
Monday, October 5, 2009
Optical Multi-Meter Ideally Suited for Single Mode Fiber
Optical Multi-Meter Ideally Suited for Single Mode Fiber
Toronto, Canada - GAO Tek Inc. (www.GAOTek.com) has announced the release of its optical multi-meter ideal for fieldwork. The easy-to-use meter can act as an optical power meter, a stable light source or a loss measurement system. It features a backlit LCD screen and selectable power sources: AC-DC adaptor, rechargeable Ni-Cd battery or dry cells.
The optical meter is specifically designed for single mode fiber measurement and provides a wavelength calibration function at four wavelengths. The optical multi-meter, model 2498A, measures optical loss and checks the performance of optical parts. It provides CW mode light signals; the measurement resolution is 0.1dBm to 1dB in W display mode or 0.01 to 0.1dB in REL display mode. This multi-meter covers 0.85&m, 1.30?m, 1.31?m and 1.55?m wavelengths for optical loss measurement within a measurement range of 3dBm to -70dBm or 20dBm to -50dBm. Additionally, the deviation of optical power sensor is compensated automatically. Visit http://www.GAOTek.com for more information or to purchase this product online. For any sales inquires please contact: 1-877 585-9555 ext. 601 - Toll Free (USA & Canada) 1-416 292-0038 ext. 601 - All Other Areas sales@gaotek.com About GAO Tek Inc. GAO Tek Inc. (www.GAOTek.com) is a global leader in research, development and manufacturing of high performance telecommunication testers, electronic measurement instruments, embedded development tools and other electronic products that serve the needs of electronic professionals internationally.
Toronto, Canada - GAO Tek Inc. (www.GAOTek.com) has announced the release of its optical multi-meter ideal for fieldwork. The easy-to-use meter can act as an optical power meter, a stable light source or a loss measurement system. It features a backlit LCD screen and selectable power sources: AC-DC adaptor, rechargeable Ni-Cd battery or dry cells.
The optical meter is specifically designed for single mode fiber measurement and provides a wavelength calibration function at four wavelengths. The optical multi-meter, model 2498A, measures optical loss and checks the performance of optical parts. It provides CW mode light signals; the measurement resolution is 0.1dBm to 1dB in W display mode or 0.01 to 0.1dB in REL display mode. This multi-meter covers 0.85&m, 1.30?m, 1.31?m and 1.55?m wavelengths for optical loss measurement within a measurement range of 3dBm to -70dBm or 20dBm to -50dBm. Additionally, the deviation of optical power sensor is compensated automatically. Visit http://www.GAOTek.com for more information or to purchase this product online. For any sales inquires please contact: 1-877 585-9555 ext. 601 - Toll Free (USA & Canada) 1-416 292-0038 ext. 601 - All Other Areas sales@gaotek.com About GAO Tek Inc. GAO Tek Inc. (www.GAOTek.com) is a global leader in research, development and manufacturing of high performance telecommunication testers, electronic measurement instruments, embedded development tools and other electronic products that serve the needs of electronic professionals internationally.
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